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VEGETABLE     GARDENING 


A     .MANUAL    ON     THE     GROWING    OF     VEGETABLES 
FOR   H      TE    USE   AND    MARKETING. 

PREPARED  ESPECIALLY  FOR  THE  CLASSES  OF  THE  SCHOOL  OF 
AGRICULTURE  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA ,  BY 

SAMUEL  B.   GREEN, 

PROFESSOR  OF  HORTICULTURE  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF 
MINNESOTA. 

WITH  115  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Published  by  the  Author. 

WEBB  PUBLISHING  COMPANY,   ST.  PAUL, 

PUBLISHER'S  AGENTS. 

1896. 


THE  EAGLE  PRINTING   COMPANY,   DELANO.   MINN. 


9\lc 


*°l 


COPYRIGHT    1896. 

BY 

SAMUEL    B.    GREEN. 


PREFACE. 

Three  years  ago  I  published  "Amateur  Fruit  Growing" 
as  a  help  in  my  class  room  work  in  the  School  of  Agriculture. 
It  has  been  very  useful  for  this  purpose,  and  has  also  been 
very  favorably  received  by  the  horticulturists  of  this  section 
of  the  country.  Such  encouragement  has  led  me  to  publish 
this  book,  which  is  prepared  primarily  for  the  School  of 
Agriculture  of  the  University  of  Minnesota,  but  which  I  hope, 
will  prove  a  practical  Manual  for  the  vegetable  growers  of 
the  Northern  Mississippi  Valley.  This  large  section  has,  as 
yet,  very  few  agricultural  books  adapted  to  its  peculiar  con- 
ditions, and  too  often  the  methods  and  varieties  recommended 
in  books  written  in  the  Eastern  States  are  not  fitted  for  the 
existing  conditions  of  this  section.  In  preparing  this  book  I 
have  had  the  kind  assistance  of  many  of  my  friends  and  my 
thanks  are  especially  due  to  Dr.  Otto  Lugger  for  his  assist- 
ance in  revising  the  chapter  on  Entomology;  to  Professor 
Harry  Snyder  for  help  in  revising  the  chapter  on  Manures, 
and  to  Major  A.  G.  Wilcox  for  many  useful  suggestions. 
Mr.  R.  S.  Mackintosh,  my  assistant  in  the  Division  of  Horti- 
culture of  the  Experiment  Station,  has  given  me  much  help  in 
preparing  the  photographs  for  the  half-tone  illustrations. 
To  all  these  parties  I  wish  to  extend  my  hearty  thanks. 

This  book  is  written  for  the  latitude  of  St.  Paul  and 
Minneapolis,  Minnesota,  and  the  dates  here  given  are  such  as 
experience  has  shown  best  in  that  section. 

Most  of  the  illustrations  used  are  original.  D.  Landreth 
&  Sons,  the  well-known  seedsmen  of  Philadelphia,  have 
kindly  given  me  the  three  half-tone  illustrations  numbered  57, 
60  and  93.      The  other  figures  are  from  various  sources. 


A.  *  20pE«rv  of 


VEGETABLE    GARDENING, 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE   VEGETABLE  GARDEN. 

Location  and  Soil. — The  land  for  vegetable  gardening 
should  be  free  from  stones  and  stumps,  and  easily  culti- 
vated. Wet  land  should  be  avoided  unless  it  can  be 
drained  at  a  reasonable  outlay:  if  it  cannot  be  drained  it 
is  of  little  worth,  as  scarcely  anything-  of  value  can  be 
raised  on  it.  All  land  for  vegetable  gardening  should  be 
well  drained,  naturally  or  ai-tificially,  since  crops  on  well 
drained  land  suffer  less  from  excess  of  water  as  well  as 
from  drought.  Drained  land  also  gives  best  and  most  uni- 
form returns  from  the  manure  applied  to  it.  When  drain- 
age is  lacking  in  the  land,  the  raising  of  plants  on  it  is  so 
very  much  a  matter  of  chance  that  in  the  long  run  it  will 
generally  prove  unprofitable.  Much  of  the  land  in  culti- 
vation is  sufficiently  drained  naturally,  while  some  land  that 
needs  no  drainage  when  used  for  grass  or  grain  would 
be  greatly  improved  by  being  under-drained  when  it  is  to  be 
used  for  some  garden  crops.  Land  which  has  a  gently  roll- 
ing or  undulating  surface  and  a  southern  exposure  is  the  most 
desirable  for  general  gardening  operations,  as  it  is  easily 
worked  and  allows  the  most  perfect  control  of  the  water  that 
falls  upon  it.  When  irrigation  is  to  be  practiced,  such  sloping 
surface  aids  very  much  in  the  distribution  of  the  water.  For 
a  few  crops,  such  as  celery,  cabbage,  etc.,  the  slope  makes 
very  little  difference,  as  flat  and  even  very  moist  (not  wet) 
land  is  best.  There  is  a  very  great  difference  in  the  value 
of  northern  and  southern  slopes  for  various  crops.  This 
difference  will  frequently  amount  to  one  crop    a  year   where 


6  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

the  soil  is  closely  tilled.  The  soil  on  a  southern  slope  can 
be  worked  much  earlier  in  the  spring-  than  that  having  a 
northern  exposure,  and  often  by  proper  management  two 
crops  may  be  grown  in  one  year  in  such  places,  while  on  a 
northern  slope  perhaps  only  one  crop  could  be  raised.  Then 
again,  such  crops  as  melons  and  tomatoes  that  require  a 
long  season  and  a  warm  location  to  mature  could  do  so  on 
a  southern  slope,  while  on  a  northern  slope  they  might  not 
ripen. 

Location  and  Soil  for  Early  Crops.— When  the  object  in 
vegetable  gardening  is  to  grow  very  early  crops,  it  is  im- 
portant to  have  quick-acting  land.  Such  a  soil  contains  a 
large  amount  of  sand  in  its  composition.  Soils  of  this  class 
warm  up  very  quickly,  and  decomposition  goes  on  very  rap- 
idly in  them.  They  give  the  quickest  returns  from  manures. 
If  such  land  has  a  southern  slope  and,  in  addition,  is  pro- 
tected from  the  north  and  west  winds,  the  situation  will  be  an 
ideal  one  for  the  early  vegetable  garden  and  for  tropical 
plants,  such  as  tomatoes,  beans,  corn,  etc.  However,  land 
and  locations  of  this  character  suffer  most  from  drought, 
therefore  every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  protect  them 
from  it.  Sandy  soils,  when  irrigated,  become  most  pro- 
ductive. 

Location  and  Soil  for  Late  Crops. — When  the  intention  is 
to  raise  cabbages,  potatoes,  turnips,  beets,  etc.,  for  mar- 
keting in  the  autumn  and  for  crops  that  require  but  a  short 
time  to  mature  or  that  prefer  a  cool  location,  a  good  clayey 
loam  is  generally  best,  and  if  it  has  a  northern  exposure  so 
much  the  better.  If  obliged  to  use  a  stiff  clay  soil,  it  will 
be  found  to  give  best  results  if  subsoiled  and  drained.  Such 
land  should  be  fall-plowed  and  left  in  ridges.  It  will  also 
be  improved  if  coarse  manure  is  worked  into,  it  since  this 
has  a  tendency  to  make  the  land  open  and  more  easily  worked. 
A  retentive  clayey  loam  will  be  more  difficult  to  work  than  a 
sandy  soil  but  will  generally  withstand  drought  much  better, 
although  a  somewhat  sandy  loam  with  a  retentive  porous  clay 
sub-soil  is  often  considered  more  desirable  on  account  of  the 
greater  ease  with  which  it  is  worked,  and  it  resists  drought 
nearly  as  well  as  a  clayey  loam  if  proper  precautions  are  used 
in  its  management. 


CHAPTER  II. 

IRRIGATION   AND  ROTATION   OF   CROPS. 

Irrigation  is  generally  considered  unnecessary  in  this  sec- 
tion, since  we  raise  fair  and  even  abundant  crops  nearly  every 
year  without  its  aid,  but  in  almost  any  season  there  are  peri- 
ods when  if  water  could  be  applied  to  growing  crops  it 
would  improve  them.  It  will  seldom,  if  ever,  pay  to  irrigate 
ordinary  farm  crops  if  it  is  necessary  to  pump  the  water 
used.  In  order  to  have  irrigation  practical  for  farm  ci*ops, 
the  water  should  be  carried  and  distributed  on  the  land  by 
the  force  of  gravity.  It  may  pay  to  pump  water  to  irrigate 
some  garden  crops  if  the  conditions  are  favorable  and  the 
work  is  done  intelligently.  In  this  section  irrigation  should 
be  used  to  supplement  the  rainfall,  which  should  ordinarily 
be  kept  from  running  off  the  surface  of  the  land  by  every 
possible  precaution. 

Mulching  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  practicable  only  around 
trees  and  in  the  case  of  a  very  few  garden  crops,  such  as 
strawberries  and  raspberries.  The  intelligent  use  of  mulch 
on  land  in  well  known  cases  has  caused  the  soil  under  it  to 
hold  an  amount  of  water  equal  to  thirty-three  per  cent  more 
than  was  retained  in  soil  near  by  not  mulched,  the  amount 
in  one  case  being  equal  to  an  increase  of  over  two  quarts  of 
water  to  every  cubic  foot  of  soil,  or  to  an  increase  of  over  680 
barrels  in  the  upper  one  foot  of  soil  of  one  acre.  If  this 
amount  of  water  had  been  applied  at  the  critical  stage  in  the 
growth  of  some  crops  suffering  for  moisture,  it  might  have 
made  a  success  of  what  would  otherwise  have  been  a  failure. 
Where  practicable,  it  is  always  desirable  to  have  a  good 
mulch  on  land  that  is  watered,  since  it  retards  evaporation 
and  prevents  the  surface  soil  from  baking. 

Cultivation  of  the  land  prevents  evaporation  and  so  saves 
the  moisture  in  it.     In  one  instance  the  amount  of  increase  of 


8  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

water  in  a  good  soil  due  to  cultivation  was  equal  to  thirty- 
three  per  cent  of  what  it  contained  when  not  cultivated.  This 
increase,  however,  is  somewhat  more  than  was  found  in  other 
trials,  but  in  every  instance  there  has  been  a  marked  increase 
in  the  drought  resisting  qualities  of  the  soil  due  to  continued 
cultivation.  In  some  experiments  made  by  Professor  Levi 
Stockbridge  in  1878,  it  was  clearly  shown  that  on  one  occa- 
sion in  eight  days  of  very  dry  summer  weather  thorough  cul- 
tivation of  the  land  resulted  in  saving  256  barrels  of  water  in 
an  acre  of  heavy  loam  by  preventing-  evaporation  from  its 
surface.  These  facts  show  the  great  value  of  cultivation  as 
an  aid  in  irrigating  operations.  Cultivation  of  the  land  or 
mulching  should  always  go  with  irrigation. 

Humus  is  the  rotten  organic  matter  in  the  soil  which  in- 
creases its  retaining  power.  On  this  account  new  land  which 
contains  much  organic  matter  does  not  suffer  as  seriously 
from  drought  as  that  which  has  been  cultivated  for  some  time 
without  manure.  Likewise,  land  heavily  manured  with  rotten 
manure,  which  becomes  humus,  has  its  drought  resisting 
qualities  increased,  while  the  application  of  undecayed  man- 
ure to  the  land  has  a  directly  opposite  result  until  it  has 
been  in  the  soil  long  enough  to  become  thoroughly  rotted. 

Amount  of  Water  Required  for  Irrigating  Different  Crops. — 
Sometimes  a  very  small  amount  of  water  applied  at  the 
right  time  will  make  the  difference  between  a  good  crop 
and  a  total  failure,  as,  for  instance,  when  dry  weather  comes  on 
just  as  the  strawberry  crop  is  almost  ripe,  when  it  has  hap- 
pened that  so  small  a  quantity  as  600  barrels  of  water  per 
acre  has  been  sufficient  to  ripen  the  crop.  In  western  Kansas 
it  is  estimated  that  a  storage  capacity  of  5,000  barrels  per 
acre  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  rain  supply  is  needed  to 
mature  a  crop  in  dry  seasons.  In  this  section  a  storage  ca- 
pacity of  1,500  barrels  per  acre  would  probably  be  enough 
to  insure  against  serious  injury  from  drought  in  any  but 
very  exceptionally  dry  years.  Enough  water  to  cover  an  acre 
one  inch  deep  is  termed  an  acre  inch.  About  900  barrels 
equals  one  acre  inch. 

Pumping  Water  for  Irrigation. — Where  valuable  crops  are 
grown,  it  will  sometimes  pay  to  pump  water  for  them.  There 
are   many    localities    in  this   section  where  a  large  amount 


IRRIGATION  AND  ROTATION  OF  CROPS.  9 

of  water  may  be  controlled  by  lifting"  it  less  than  thirty  feet. 
In  such  places  windmills  may  be  successfully  used  for  pump- 
ing the  water,  providing  reservoirs  of  large  capacity  can  be 
cheaply  made  into  which  water  may  be  pumped  the  year 
around,  to  be  used  as  needed.  Thresher  engines,  which  are 
seldom  used  except  in  the  late  summer  and  fall,  may  some- 
times be  used  to  advantage  for  pumping-  water  for  crops  and 
often  at  very  low  cost.  Gasoline  engines  are  occasionally 
used  in  some  irrigation  works.  They  are  very  desirable, 
but  at  present  the  price  is  too  high  to  warrant  their  general 
use.  In  putting  in  a  pumping  plant,  the  pump  should  be  put 
as  near  the  water  supply  as  possible. 

Reservoirs  should  be  on  some  elevated  point.  They  are 
easily  made  by  digging  out  the  earth  and  puddling  the 
bottom  and  sides  with  thick  clay,  which  should  be  at  least 
one  foot  in  thickness  and  well  packed  when  wet.  A  good 
way  to  pack  it  is  to  drive  horses  over  it.  When  clay  cannot 
be  obtained  the  bottom  may  be  made  tight  with  a  thin  coat- 
ing of  coal  tar  and  sand,  but  clay  is  preferable,  and  what  is 
known  as  blue  clay  is  generally  best.  Cement  is  liable  to 
crack  badly  from  frost  and  is  not  adapted  to  this  purpose. 
Made  in  this  way,  reservoirs  are  very  cheap  and  easily  re- 
paired. It  is  important  to  have  them  very  large  where  the 
supply  of  water  is  limited:  where  the  supply  is  large,  the 
reservior  may  be  much  smaller. 

Application  of  Water.  —  Sloping  land  is  necessary  for  most 
successful  irrigation,  as  it  is  very  difficult  to  apply  water  to 
the  surface  of  level  land.  The  slope  should  be  sufficient  to 
permit  the  water  to  flow  quickly  along  its  surface  and  yet  not 
enough  to  cause  it  to  wash.  For  irrigation  purposes  the  rows 
should  not  be  over  300  feet  long.  The  best  results  are  gener- 
ally obtained  from  irrigating  soils  having  considerable 
sand  in  their  composition.  Drifting  sands  may  often  be 
made  to  produce  good  crops  by  irrigation  and  manuring,  and 
lands  having  some  sand  in  their  composition  are  much  better 
adapted  to  irrigation  than  clay  soils,  since  the  latter  often 
bake  badly  or  become  sticky  so  that  they  cannot  be  cultivated 
immediately  after  applying  water  to  them. 

Rules  for  Applying  Water  to  Land. — Water  should  not  be  ap- 
plied unless  the  crop  is  suffering  for  it,  but  cultivate  the  soil 


10 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


thoroughly  and  frequently,  and  thus  watering  may  be  avoided. 

Cultivate  at  once  after  irrigating,  if  the  land  will  per- 
mit of  it,  so  that  the  soil  will  not  bake;  evaporation  will 
thus  be  prevented,  and  water  will  be  saved  in  the  soil. 

Do  not  apply  more  than  enough  water  to  nicely  moisten 
the  land  and  avoid  getting  it  water-soaked. 

Do  not  think  that  irrigation  will  take  the  place  of  culti- 
vation, for  it  will  not,  since  without  cultivation  irrigation  is 
seldom  successful. 

Water  for  irrigating  purposes  should  be  somewhat  warm 
when  applied.  Cold  springs  do  not  afford  a  satisfactory 
supply  for  some  crops  unless  first  pumped  into  a  reservoir. 
A  temperature  of  60  degrees  is  desirable,  though  not  always 
necessary  for  the  best  results. 

Aim  to  wet  the  roots  of  the  plants  and  avoid  getting 
water  on  the  leaves. 

Wooden  troughs  afford  the  cheapest  conduits  for  water 
and  should  be  used  whenever  practicable.  Iron  pipe  is  expen- 
sive and  much  more  difficult  to  manage-than  wooden  troughs. 


Figure  1.— Method  of  irrigating  crop  planted  in  rows. 


Sub-irrigation  is  a  new  term  that  refers  to  the  application  of 
water  to  the  roots  of  plants  by   means  of  underground  chan- 


IRRIGATION  AND  ROTATION  OF  CROPS.  11 

nels,  such  as  tile  or  other  drains.  It  works  best  in  sandy 
soils.  In  clayey  soil  the  water  runs  too  slowly  through  the 
sides  of  the  tiles.  Land  tiles  make  as  good  channels  as  any 
for  this  purpose.  They  should  be  buried  a  few  inches  below 
the  plants  to  be  watered,  being  laid  level  with  open  joints. 
Some  experiments  seem  to  show  that  it  is  a  very  wasteful  way 
of  using  water,  while  others  have  shown  this  system  to  be 
economical.  As  practiced  for  watering  plants  in  greenhouse 
benches  it  has  given  excellent  results. 

ROTATION   OF   CROPS. 

By  rotation  is  meant  the  special  succession  of  crops 
growing  upon  the  land  for  a  series  of  years.  This  is  very 
desirable  even  on  land  in  the  highest  state  of  cultivation,  but 
it  is  very  difficult  to  lay  down  exact  rules  to  be  followed. 

Reasons  for  Rotating  Crops. — We  rotate  crops:  (1)  to  avoid 
insect  enemies,  as  in  the  case  of  onions  and  turnips,  which 
are  often  liable  to  serious  insect  injuries  when  grown 
more  than  one  year  on  the  same  land,  turnips  being  es- 
pecially liable  to  injury  from  insects  when  grown  in  the  same 
place  successively;  (2)  to  avoid  injuries  from  fungous  dis- 
eases, i.  e.,  in  case  of  potato  and  beet  scab,  onion  and  melon 
rust,  corn  smut,  etc.:  (3)  to  increase  the  amount  of  humus  in 
the  soil,  as  when  land  is  seeded  down  to  grass  or  clover;  (4) 
to  deepen  the  soil  and  add  nitrogen  to  it  as  well  as  humus, 
as  when  clover  is  grown  on  the  land;  (5)  to  get  rid  of  weed 
seeds  in  the  soil:  (6)  to  use  the  plant  food  in  the  land  to  best 
advantage,  since  crops  vary  very  much  in  the  amount  of  the 
different  elements  which  enter  into  their  composition.  Legu- 
minous crops,  like  clover,  peas,  beans,  etc.,  improve  the  land 
on  which  they  grow,  while  most  other  crops  exhaust  the  soil. 
Some  plants  excel  others  in  their  power  to  search  for  plant 
food,  or  to  take  plant  food  from  the  soil.  Some  plants  feed 
near  the  surface  largely,  while  others  take  their  food  mostly 
from  a  lower  level.  Root  crops  should  not  follow  root  crops, 
nor  should  vines  follow  vines  for  many  years  in  succession 
on  the  same  land. 


CHAPTER  III. 

MANURES. 

While  there  are  twelve  or  more  elements  that  enter  into 
the  composition  of  our  cultivated  plants,  yet  only  nitrogen, 
phosphorus  and  potash,  and  in  a  few  cases  lime,  are  lacking 
from  our  agricultural  soils.  These  three  elements  enter  large- 
ly into  all  our  cultivated  crops  and  are  necessary  for  their 
growth.     The  other  elements  are  usually  present  in  abundance. 

Humus. — Humus,  while  not  in  itself  a  plant  food,  is  of 
great  importance  in  the  soil.  It  is  formed  by  the  decay  of 
organic  matter  and  is  composed  principally  of  carbon.  It 
promotes  chemical  action,  by  which  plant  food  is  set  free  in 
the  soil,  and  it  increases  the  power  of  the  soil  for  holding  the 
water  and  gases  which  it  yields  up  slowly  to  the  roots  of 
the  plants.  Rotten  stable  manure  contains  a  large  amount 
of  humus-forming  materials,  which  undoubtedly  add  very 
much  to  its  value,  and  it  is  probably  on  this  account  that 
it  often  gives  better  returns  than  commercial  fertilizers  con- 
taining the  same  quantities  of  what  are  termed  the  essential 
elements. 

The  action  of  manures  in  the  soil  can  be  and  generally  is 
both  direct  and  indirect.  They  act  directly  when  they  con- 
tain actual  available  plant  food  or  when  by  their  decay  they 
yield  it  to  the  plant;  they  act  indirectly  when  they  start 
chemical  action  in  the  soil  and  thus  set  free  soluble  plant 
food  in  the  soil  itself.  Almost  all  manures  act  in  this  in- 
direct way  to  some  extent.  A  moderate  application  of  stable 
manure  by  its  decomposition  (which  is  chemical  action)  in 
the  soil  has  been  known  to  increase  the  temperature  of  the  soil 
by  three  degrees.  Lime  in  itself  is  a  plant  food  and  is  large- 
ly used  by  some  crops.  Most  soils,  however,  contain  it  in 
great  abundance,  yet  if  quick  lime  be  added  to  a  soil  al- 
ready rich  in  common  limestone  it  generally  serves  to  in- 
crease growth.  This  is  not  due  to  the  plant  taking  up  more 
lime,  but  rather  to  the  fact  that  the  quick  lime  starts  chemical 
action  in  the  soil  by  which  some  of  the  locked-up  stores    of 


MANURES. 


13 


plant  food  are  made  available.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
unleached  ashes,  though  it  contains  much  more  valuable  fertil- 
izing material  than  lime.  Common  salt  also  acts  to  some 
extent  indirectly  as  a  fertilizer,  while  it  is  of  very  little  value 
as  a  plant  food. 

COMPOSITION   OF  VEGETABLES,  MANURES  AND  FERTILIZERS. 

In  the  following  tables  is  shown  the  amount  of  fertiliz- 
ing elements  required  by  vegetables  and  the  amount  of  these 
materials  which  is  contained  in  the  various  farm  manures 
and  commercial  fertilizers.  These  figures  are  from  eastern 
United  States  and  European  sources.  The  climatic  con- 
ditions in  these  places  are  quite  different  from  those  in  many 
sections  of  the  western  states  where  the  actual  amount  of  ash 
ingredients  in  plants,  especially  in  dry  years,  may  greatly  ex- 
ceed the  amounts  here  given.  The  relation  of  these  tables  to 
one  another  is  worthy  of  special  study,  since  they  show  what 
the  plants  need  and  what  fertilizing  materials  supply. 


TABLE   I.— Composition 

of  Vegetables. % 

Water. 

Ash. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Potash 

Artichokes 

Per  ct. 

81.50 
93.96 
68.46 
87.23 
88.47 
90.52 
88.59 
90.82 
78.90 
78.33 
95.99 
92.93 
76.68 
91.08 
86.28 
88.46 
93.68 
92.61 
76.44 
90.53 
91.15 
84.19 
87.41 
87.55 
80.34 
12.48 
12.62 
79.93 

Per  ct. 

0.99 
0.67 
1.69 
0.76 
1.04 
1.40 
1.02 
0.81 
1.09 
1.02 
0.46 
0.50 
1.87 
1.27 
1.71 
1.18 
1.61 
1.01 
1.49 
0.56 
0.68 
2.25 
0.74 
0.57 
1.03 
2.36 
3.11 
0.78 

Per  ct. 
0.36 
0.29 

Perct. 

0.17 
0.08 

Perct. 
0.48 

0.29 

Beets,  red 

0.24 
0.38 
0.16 
0.13 

1.92 

*0.09 
*0.11 
0.09 
0.16 
0.19 

*0.44 

Cabbages 

*0.43 
0.51 

C  auliflo  wer 

0.36 

Chorogi,  tubers 

0.64 

0.16 

'"6.36 

0.48 

0.12 

"'6.07 
0.27 

0.24 

Eggplant 

Horse-radish,   root 

1.16 

0.43 

Lettuce,  steins 

6.23 

*6.07" 

Lettuce,  whole  plant 

*0.37 

Mustard,  white 

Okra 

0.14 
0.22 

0.04 
0.19 

0.10 

Parsnips 

0.62 

Peas,  garden 

3.58 

0.84 

1.01 

Peas,  green 

14 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


Composition  of  Vegetables 4—  {Continued.) 


Peas,  small  {Lathyras  sativus), 
whole  plant 

Pumpkins,  flesh 

Pumpkins,  rind 

Pumpkins,  seeds  and  stringy 
matter 

Pumpkins,  whole  fruit 

Rhubarb,  roots  

Rhubarb,  stems 

Rhubarb,  stems  and  leaves 

Rutabagas 

Spinach 

Squashes,  flesh 

Squashes,  rind 

Squashes.  seeds  and  stringy 
matter 

Squashes,    whole  fruit  

Sweet  corn,   cobs 

Sweet  corn,  husks 

Sweet  corn,  kernels 

Sweet  corn,  stalks., 

Sweet  potatoes,  tubers 

Sweet  potatoes,  vines 

Tomatoes,  fruitt 

Tomatoes,  roots 

Tomatoes,  vines 

Turnips 

Watermelons,   juice 

Watermelons,  pulp 

W  at ermelons,  rind 

Watermelons,  seeds 


Water. 


Per  ct. 

5.80 
93.39 
86.23 

76.86 
92.27 
74.35 
92.67 
91.67 
88.61 
92.42 
88.09 
82.00 

74.03 
94.88 
80.10 
86.19 
82.14 
80.86 
71.26 
41.55 
93.64 
73.31 
83.61 
90.46 
93.05 
91.87 
89.97 
48.37 


Ash. 


Per  ct. 

5.94 
0.67 
1.36 

1.51 
0.63 
2.28 
0.94 
1.72 
1.15 
1.94 
1.72 
1.21 

1.39 
0.41 
0.59 
0.56 
0.56 
1.25 
1.00 
5.79 
0.47 
11.72 
3.00 
0.80 
0.20 
0.33 
1.24 
1.34 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Per  ct. 
2.50 


*0.11 
0.55 


0.13 
0.19 
0.49 


0.21 
0.18 
0.46 
0.28 
*0.24 


0.16 
0.24 
0.32 
0.18 


Phos- 
phoric Potash 
Acid,  i 


Per  ct.    Per  ct. 
0.59  1.99 


♦0.16 
0.06 


0.02 
0.12 
0.16 


0.05 
0.07 
0.07 
0.14 

*0.08 


0.05 
0.06 
0.07 
0.10 


*0.09 
0.53 


0.36 
0.49 
0.27 


0.22 
0.22 
0.24 
0.41 
*0.37 

"6.27 
0.29 
0.50 
0.39 


*  Wolff.        tSugar  in  fruit.  3.05  per  cent:  acid  (malic),  0.46  per  cent. 
^Compiled  by  office  of  Experiment  Station. 


TABLE  II.— Composition  of  Farm  Manures. 


Cattle  excrement  (solid,  fresh). 

Cattle  urine  (fresh)  

Hen  manure  (fresh) 

Horse  excrement  (solid)  

Horse  urine  (fresh) 

Human  excrement  (solid) 

Human  urine 

Pigeon  manure  (dry)  

Poudrette  (night  soil) 


Mois- 
ture. 


Perct. 


-jtiU.UO 


77.20 
95.90 
10.00 
50.00 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Perct. 

0.29 
0.58 
1.10 
0.44 
1.55 
1.00 
0.60 
3.20 
0.80 


Pot- 
ash. 


Perct. 

0.10 
0.49 
0.56 
0.35 
1.50 
0.25 
0.20 
1.00 
0.30 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 


Perct, 

0.17 


0.85 
0.17 


1.09 
0.17 
1.90 
1.40 


.Lime. 


Perct, 


2.10 

0.80 


MANURES. 


15 


Composition 

of  Farm  Manures.— (C 

nitiini.nl) 

Mois- 
ture. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Pot- 
ash. 

Phosphoric  acid. 

Solu- 
ble. 

Re- 
verted. 

Total. 

.Lime. 

Sheep    excrement 

Per  ct. 

Perct. 

0.55 
1.95 

0.50 

0.60 
0.43 

0.49 

Perct. 

0.15 
2.26 

0.60 

0.13 
0.83 

0.43 

Perct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

0.31 
0.01 

0.30 

0.41 
0.07 

0.32 

Perct- 

Sheep  urine  (fresh) 
Stable     manure 

73.27 



Swine     excrement 
(solid,    fresh) 

Swine  urine  (fresh) 

Barnyard     manure 

(average) 

68.87 



TABLE  III. —Composition  of  Commercial  Fertilizin     Materia  s. 


Apatite 

36.08 

0.10 

0.40 
1.14 

1.51 

1.70 

3.80 

35.89 

28.28 

17.00 
23.25 

17.60 

20.10 

29.90 

26.77 

1.75 

8.85 

3.10 

3.10 
13.35 
1.91 

8.25 

Ashes     (anthraicte 
coal)  

0.10 

0.40 
1.20 

1.27 

5.25 
1.31 

Ashes    (bituminous 
coal) 

Ashes  (lime  kiln)... 
Ashes    (wood 

leached) 

Ashes    (wood,    un- 

leached) ... 

15.45 

30.22 

12.50 

40.09 

7.00 

4.60 



48.50 
28.08 

34.00 

Bat  guano 

8.20 

2.37 

1.24 

Bone  ash 

44.89 

Bone  black.... 

Bone     black     (dis- 
solved)   

15.40 

0.40 

1.30 
7.60 

Bonemeal 

7.50 

4.05 

2.60 
6.20 
1.7C 

Bone     meal      (dis- 
solved)  

13  53 

Bone     meal    (free 
from  fat) 

Bone    meal    (from 
glue  factory)... 

Carribean  guano... 

7.31 
9.50 

7.80 

7.75 

'   24.27" 
12.50 
12.75 

22.28 

10.17 
3.20 

39.95 

Castor  pomace.... 

5.50 

1.10 
22.75 

1.80 

1.50 

Cotton-hull  ashes... 

1.25 

6.50 

9.60 

Cotton-seed     meal 
(decort) 

7.10 

4  30 
1.67 
10.52 
7.25 

Cotton-seed     meal 

(undecort)  

Cubaguano 

Driedblood 

Dried  fish 

0.55 

2.60 

Gas  lime 

43.66 

Horn    and    hoof 
waste 

13.25 

1.83 

Kainit 

13.54 

1.15 

Krugite 

12.45 

16 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


Composition  of  Commercial  Fertilizing  flaterials.— (Continued.) 


Pot- 
ash. 

Phosphoi-ic  acid. 

Mois- 
ture 

Nitro- 
•gen. 

Solu- 
ble. 

Re- 
verted. 

Total. 

Lime. 

Per  ct. 

12.09 
13.32 
50.00 
60.00 
2.00 
7.60 

Per  ct. 

10.44 
0.76 
1.10 
0.40 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

2.07 
21.88 
0.10 
0.10 

Per  ct. 

7.55 

37.49 

Muck 

0.15 
0.35 

51.48 

Mud  (salt) 

0.90 

Muriate  of  potash.. 

Navassa  phosphate 

34.27 

37.45 

Nitrate  of  potash... 

1.93 

13.09 

45.19 

1.40        15.70 
8.54        12.12 

Oleomargarine    re- 

0.88 
0.08 
15.30 

24.50 

Peat 

61.50 
14.81 

2.25 

0.85 
7.35 

0.18 
2.65 

Peruvian  guano 

Phosphates      from 

3.20 

4.10 

28.50 



20.93 

Sewage    sludge 

88.49 
5.54 

3.61 
63.06 

1.00 

4.75 

2.54 
10.00 

6.18 
10.00 

0.05 

0.05 
1.83 

2.04 
3,25 

0.10 

1.58 

Soot 

Spent     tanbark 

"  7.19" 
20.50 

1.61 

33.46 

1.14 

Sulphate     of     am- 

Sulphate  of  potash 
and  magnesia... 

Sulphate  of  potash 
(high  grade).... 

25.50 
33.40 

2.57 

6.70 
3.71 

2.35 

0.30 

5.10 

11.80 
0.65 
0.70 

5.02 
8.20 
3.92 
*1.20 

o  o.) 

4.20 

Wool  waste 

15.80 

6.50 

0.35 

0.11 

•■■•Sometimes  as  high  as  5  per  cent. 
INova   Scotia  plaster  contains  94  per  cent  pure   gypsum  and  4  per  cent 
carbonate  of  lime;  Onondaga  and  Cayuga,  65-75  per  cent  gypsum  and  18-28 
per  cent  of  carbonate  of  lime. 


Animal  Manures. — Manure  from  the  same  animals  may 
vary  greatly  in  quality  according  to  the  kind  of  food  and 
the  condition  and  age  of  the  animals  from  which  it  comes. 
Fat  animals  fed  on  food  rich  in  nitrogen  (grains)  produce 
the  best  manures.  Young  growing  animals  that  are  fed  on 
poor  food,  such  as  straw,  swale  hay,  etc.,  produce  very  in- 
ferior manure.  The  manure  from  young  growing  animals 
or  from  milking  cows  is  much  inferior  to  that  from  fat  steers, 
since,  in  the  case  of  the  young  animal,  a  large  amount  of 
nitrogen    and    phosphoric    acid  is  required  to  build    up    the 


MANURES.  17 

animal  body.  In  the  case  of  the  milking-  cow  a  large  amount 
of  nitrogen  is  required  for  the  production  of  the  casein  of  the 
milk,  while  very  little  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  food  is  retained 
in  the  body  of  the  fattening  animal.  The  fats,  oils  and 
starchy  materials  which  animals  use  largely  are  of  no  value  as 
manures.  The  nitrogen,  potash  and  phosphorus  are  thrown 
off  by  the  fat  animal  in  the  waste  products.  Manures  rich 
in  nitrogen  ferment  most  rapidly.  The  urine  is  generally 
rich  in  nitrogen,  and  since  all  it  contains  is  soluble  it  is  of 
more  value  than  the  solid  excrements  of  animals,  and  special 
effort  should  be  made  to  save  it. 

Horse  Manure  has  the  characteristic  of  being  loose  and 
light,  and  of  fermenting  very  quickly.  On  this  account  it  is 
especially  valuable  for  early  spring  crops,  as  it  makes  the 
soil  loose,  thus  permitting  the  air  to  easily  penetrate  it,  while 
by  its  rapid  fermentation  it  warms  the  land.  It  is  valuable 
to  mix  with  cow  and  swine  manure  on  account  of  its  hasten- 
ing fermentation.  On  account  of  these  qualities  it  is  used 
to  warm  hotbed?. 

Hen  Manure  is  one  of  the  richest  manures  formed  by  any 
of  our  domestic  animals.  It  heats  quite  readily  and  violently 
and  should  be  used  very  sparingly  and  with  caution,  since  if 
put  in  contact  with  the  roots  or  stems  of  plants  it  is  very  liable 
to  burn  them.  It  should  "be  handled  with  great  care  and  be 
kept  dry.  If  wet,  it  ferments  and  parts  with  its  nitrogen  in  the 
form  of  ammonia  gas,  which  is  readily  perceptible  to  the  nose. 
It  acts  very  quickly  and  on  this  account  is  valuable  for  early 
crops  or  to  apply  during  the  growth  of  a  crop  when  the  avail- 
able manure  in  the  land  appears  to  have  been  exhausted.  It 
may  be  composted  with  dry  peat  or  muck,  when  it  is  more 
safely  applied  than  if  clear  and  there  is  less  danger  of  loss 
from  heating.  It  should  not  be  mixed  with  lime  or  wood 
ashes,  unless  used  at  once.  Twenty  to  thirty  bushels  of  hen 
manure  is  generally  considered  sufficient  for  one  acre. 

Cow  and  Swine  Manures  are  rather  slow  in  action,  conse- 
quently they  are  not  as  desirable  for  early  crops  as  horse 
manure,  while  they  are  excellent  for  late  crops.  For  this  latter 
purpose  they  are  often  better  than  horse  manure.  If  they  are 
mixed  with  horse  manure,  they  ferment  very  rapidly. 


18  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

Sheep  Manure  is  a  very  concentrated  manure  which  heats 
quite  rapidly.     It  is  one  of  the  best  farm  manures. 

Mixing  Manures. — It  may  often  be  a  good  plan  to  mix  the 
different  kinds  of  animal  manures  for  general  application,  as 
in  this  way  all  seem  to  be  improved.  Hen  manure  is  an  ex- 
ception and,  as  a  rule,  should  be  applied  separately.  Lime, 
wood  ashes  or  other  material  of  an  alkaline  nature  should 
never  be  mixed  with  stable  manure  of  any  kind  unless  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  loam,  peat  or  other  material  is  added  to 
absorb  the  ammonia,  which  is  always  liberated  when  nitrogen- 
ous and  alkaline  substances  are  thus  mixed.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  mix  ground  bone,  tankage  and  other  slow  acting  fer- 
tilizers with  heating  stable  manure,  as  by  so  doing  the  plant 
food  they  contain  is  made  more  available  and  the  stable  ma- 
nure is  greatly  improved  in  quality. 

The  Manure  Pile — If  early  garden  crops  are  to  be  grown, 
it  is  necessary  to  have  fine,  well  rotted  manure,  and  this  makes 
the  manure  pile  necessary.  It  should  be  placed  so  that  as  lit- 
tle waste  as  possible  will  occur  from  leaching  rains.  When  a 
manure  pile  is  to  remain  in  one  place  for  a  considerable 
time,  it  should  always  be  made  upon  a  bed  of  leaves,  peat,  loam, 
rotted  sods  or  other  absorbent,  about  one  foot  in  thickness, 
which  will  catch  and  retain  any  fertilizing  material  that  may 
leach  through  the  pile.  If  practicable,  the  pile  should  be 
made  where  it  will  be  protected  from  the  sun  and  drying  winds. 
The  height  of  the  pile  should  depend  somewhat  on  the  kind  of 
manure  and  the  season  of  the  year  when  it  is  made.  Manure 
that  will  heat  readily  should  be  piled  about  six  feet  deep. 
When  the  pile  is  quite  warm,  the  manure  should  be  turned 
over.  This  operation  should  be  performed,  very  thoroughly, 
as  often  as  the  pile  gets  very  hot.  All  the  lumps  should  be 
broken  up,  and  the  whole  pile  turned  to  the  bottom  of  the  bed 
on  which  it  is  placed.  The  absorbents  of  the  bed  should  be 
mixed  evenly  throughout  the  pile  and  the  cold  manure  from 
the  outside  be  put  on  the  inside  of  the  pile  so  that  it  may  heat 
the  more  rapidly.  If  the  pile  appears  dry  on  the  inside,  water 
or,  what  is  better,  the  urine  from  the  stable,  should  be  added  to 
assist  fermentation,  as  this  cannot  take  place  satisfactorily  in 
dry  manure  and  the  lack  of  water  may  result  in  serious  loss. 
The  number  of  times  a  manure  pile  should  be  turned  over  will 


MANURES.  19 

depend  on  the  crop  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied  and  the  kind 
and  condition  of  the  manure.  This  is  a  matter  which  must  be 
left  to  the  good  judgment  of  the  individual  manager,  but  some 
of  the  factors  bearing-  on  this  will  be  found  discussed  farther 
on. 

The  Compost  Heap  can  be  made  a  prolific  source  of  home 
made  manure.  Every  farm  and  garden  should  have  one  of 
sufficiently  large  proportion  to  take  care  of  all  refuse  organic 
material  about  the  place.  It  should  be  made  about  as  follows: 
Select  a  place  handy  to  get  at  but  where  there  is  no  standing 
water  and  put  down  first  a  bed  one  foot  deep  of  old  sods  or 
muck  and  on  this  pile  all  the  refuse  material  as  it  collects  in 
various  places.  It  may  consist  of  old  straw,  leaves,  an  oc- 
casional load  of  heating  manure,  rotten  vegetables,  etc.  This 
should  be  turned  over  occasionally  by  hand  if  necessary,  but 
the  best  plan  is  to  have  the  compost  heap  in  a  hog  yard  and 
to  it  haul  manure  as  it  collects  near  the  stables.  If  manure 
is  piled  upon  a  good  bed  of  rotten  sod,  it  will  not  lose  much 
by  leaching,  nor  will  it  lose  anything  by  heating  if  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  hogs  have  the  run  of  it  to  keep  it  well 
worked  up. 

Commercial  Manures. — By  commercial  manures  is  meant 
those  manures  which  are  commonly  sold  by  the  trade.  When 
of  a  high  price  they  are  generally  of  a  guaranteed  compo- 
sition, and  they  should  be  bought  at  a  valuation  based  on  the 
amount  of  nitrogen,  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  which  they 
contain  in  condition  available  to  the  roots  of  plants.  The 
more  available  the  form  in  which  these  materials  exist  in 
the  fertilizer,  the  more  valuable  it  is  generally  considered. 
Most  of  the  older  states  require  a  guaranteed  analysis  to  ac- 
company the  packages  in  which  the  fertilizers  are  sold  and 
exercise  some  supervision  over  the  business.  Among  the 
most  common  of  this  class  of  fertilizers  are  the  following : 

Tankage. — This  is  the  refuse  product  from  slaughtering 
establishments,  which  after  being  relieved  of  its  fat  is  brought 
to  dryness  and  ground.  It  is  very  rich  in  nitrogen  and  phos- 
phoric acid  but  contains  very  little  potash.  Most  of  the  nitro- 
gen and  phosphoric  acid  which  it  contains  is  available  to  the 
roots  of  plants.  It  is  probably  the  cheapest  source  of  nitro- 
gen and  phosphoric   acid  to  be  found  in  the    western   states. 


20  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

It  varies  considerably  in  composition,  and  this  may  some- 
times be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  in  some  establishments 
the  blood  is  separated  from  the  other  offal,  thus  reducing-  the 
percentage  of  nitrogen  in  the  tankage.  It  is  a  rather  slow 
acting  fertilizer.  Tankage  may  be  safely  used  in  quantities 
of  less  than  1000  pounds  per  acre  if  applied  broadcast  and 
worked  into  the  soil.  Four  hundred  pounds  per  acre  is  gener- 
ally considered  a  good  application.  It  may  be  safely  used  in 
these  quantities  around  growing  plants  of  cabbage,  corn,  let- 
tuce, etc.,  provided  it  is  evenly  spread  out  and  does  not  come 
in  contact  with  the  roots  of  the  plants. 

Ground  Blood  is  very  rich  in  nitrogen  and  quite  difficult 
to  dry  thoroughly.  If  at  all  moist,  it  is  likely  to  heat  badly. 
It  is  a  quick  acting  fertilizer  and  is  seldom  used  without  being 
mixed  with  other  materials. 

Ground  Bones  are  always  rich  in  phosphoric  acid,  but 
ground  fresh  bones  are  better  than  dry  bones  since  in  ad- 
dition to  phosphoric  acid  they  have  quite  a  large  percentage 
of  nitrogen,  that  is  very  small  in  bones  that  are  old  and  dry. 
It  is  always  best  to  break  or  grind  the  bones  that  are  to  be 
used  on  the  land  and  in  many  cases  to  then  mix  them  with 
fermenting  stable  manure.  Ground  bone  is  said  to  be  a  last- 
ing fertilizer  because  its  effect  can  be  seen  for  several  years. 
If  bones  are  burned,  the  nitrogen  is  wasted.  Ground  bone 
is  greatly  improved  as  a  fertilizer  by  mixing  it  with  stable  or 
other  fermenting  manure.  If  fresh  bones  are  mixed  with  un- 
leached  wood  ashes  they  will  be  made  soft.  Ground  bone  is 
generally  applied  in  much  the  same  way  and  for  the  same 
purposes  as  tankage. 

Nitrate  of  Soda,  called  also  Chili  saltpetre,  is  imported 
from  Chili.  It  looks  like  common  salt  and  contains  about  1(> 
per  cent  of  nitrogen,  perfectly  soluble  and  in  the  form  most 
available  for  the  plant.  On  this  account,  only  very  small 
quantities  should  be  applied  at  one  time,  because  if  not  taken 
up  by  the  plant  it  may  be  washed  deep  into  the  soil  out  of 
reach  of  the  roots.  It  is  especially  desirable  for  early  leaf 
crops,  such  as  early  spinach,  cabbage  and  lettuce,  and  to  ap- 
ply when  a  crop  comes  to  a  standstill.  It  acts  with  wonder- 
ful quickness — almost  like  magic.  It  may  be  applied  several 
times  to  the  growing  crop  at  intervals   of  two  weeks,    using 


MANURES. 


21 


from  T5  to  100  pounds  per  acre  at  each  application.  It  may  be 
sown  near  the  hills  if  applied  to  cabbage,  but  for  spinach  or 
similar  crops  it  should  be  sown  broadcast  when  the  plants  are 
perfectly  dry  or  during-  a  hard  rain.  If  the  leaves  are  only 
moist,  it  is  liable  to  burn  them.  If  sown  during  a  hard  rain, 
it  is  quickly  dissolved  and  washed  to  the  roots  of  the  plants 
without  injury  to  the  leaves.  It  is  expensive  and  should 
never  be  used  when  a  cheaper  supply  of  nitrogenous  manure 
will  do  just  as  well.  It  may  occasionally  be  used  to  good 
advantage  in  water  at  the  rate  of  one-half  an  ounce  of  nitrate  of 
soda  to  one  gallon  of  water.  Such  a  solution  will  not -injure 
the  foliage  and  is  of  sufficient  strength. 


Figure  2. — Spinach  plants  grown  on  land  rich  in  rotten  stable  manure.  The 
larger  plant  received  in  addition  to  the  stable  manure  nitrate  of  soda 
at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  per  acre. 

The  use  of  very  large  quantities  of  nitrate  of  soda  on  the 
land  has  been  found  to  make  it  necessary  to  continue  using  it 
in  large  quantities,  while  if  used  at  the  rate  given  it  is  not 
followed  by  such  consequences.  The  supposed  reason  for 
this  is  that  so  much  nitric  acid  in  the  soil  destroys  the  ni- 
tric acid-forming  ferments,  and  these  must  be  slowly  re- 
plenished before  the  soil  is  able  to  continue  yielding  its  ordin- 
ary supply  of  nitrogen. 


22  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia  is  a  by-product  from  gas  works  and 
contains  about  20  per  cent  of  nitrogen.  It  does  not  act  as 
quickly  as  nitrate  of  soda,  but  for  late  crops,  to  be  applied 
during  warm  weather,  it  is  one  of  the  best  sources  of  nitrogen. 

Superphosphate  is  made  by  treating  ground  bone  or  nodu- 
lar phosphate  with  sulphuric  acid  to  render  the  phosphates 
soluble.  It  is  rich  in  phosphoric  acid,  and  some  kinds  con- 
tain a  considerable  quantity  of  nitrogen.  They  vary  much  in 
quality.  The  better  kinds  are  generally  used  at  the  rate  of 
about  400  pounds  per  acre. 

Wood  Ashes  is  rich  in  potash  and  a  valuable  fertilizer  in 
many  cases,  provided  it  has  not  been  leached:  if  it  has  been 
leached,  it  is  practically  worthless  as  a  fertilizer.  Ashes  from 
hard  wood  is  much  more  valuable  than  that  from  soft  wood 
on  account  of  its  containing  much  more  potash.  Ashes  is 
one  of  the  best  fertilizers  for  fruit  trees  and  plants.  About 
twenty  bushels  of  unleached  hard  wood  ashes  is  generally 
sufficient  for  one  acre,  but  much  more  may  be  safely  used. 

Kainite. — Potash  is  also  applied  to  the  land  in  the  form 
of  German  potash  salts,  a  grade  of  which,  known  as  Kainite, 
is  very  commonly  used  as  a  fertilizer.  These  salts  are  more 
or  less  mixed  with  common  table  salt  and  other  impurities 
and  form  a  cheap  and  very  useful  supply  of  potash.  They 
are  generally  sold  on  a  valuation  based  on  the  percentage  of 
actual  potash  they  contain.  Kainite  contains  13  per  cent  of 
potash,  which  is  more  than  twice  as  much  as  there  is  in  ordin- 
ary unleached  wood  ashes.  From  200  to  600  pounds  of 
kainite  is  generally  applied  per  acre. 

Lime  is  found  in  abundance  in  most  western  soils,  but  burned 
limestone,  whether  as  fresh  slacked  or  as  quick  lime,  may  often 
be  used  to  advantage  in  small  quantities  when  large  amounts  of 
stab lemanurehave  been  used  upon  the  land  for  a  number  of  years. 
It  should  not  be  used  alone,  because  it  exhausts  the  soil. 

Land  Plaster  is  a  sulphate  of  lime.  It  is  not  a  direct 
fertilizer,  and  its  method  of  action  is  not  exactly  known.  It 
may  occasionally  be  used  to  advantage  for  leguminous  crops, 
.such  as  clover,  beans,  peas,  etc.,  in  applications  of  from  200 
to  600  pounds  per  acre  spread  broadcast. 

There  is  little  use  for  commercial  fertilizers  at  present  in 
most  of  the  western  states  and  they  should  never  be  used  until 


MANURES.  23 

the  home  sources  of  manure  have  been  exhausted,  and  then 
they  should  be  used  to  supplement  rather  than  replace  farm 
manures.  They  are  generally  expensive,  and  results  from 
their  use  here  have  not  been  as  satisfactory  as  in  the  eastern 
states.  Only  the  more  common  kinds  to  be  met  with  here,  have 
been  mentioned. 

Those  who  use  commercial  fertilizers  of  the  better  kinds 
for  the  first  time  are  very  likely  to  use  too  much  and  seriously 
injure  the  crop  to  which  it  is  applied.  It  is  much  better  to  use 
too  little  than  too  much  and  to  experiment  along  this  line  in 
a  small  and  inexpensive  way  to  begin  with. 

Applications  of  Manures.— The  proportion  of  the  various 
plant  foods  used  by  different  crops  varies  considerably,  some 
using  a  larger  amount  of  one  element  and  some  of  another. 
Their  visible  effects  when  in  excess  are  also  quite  different. 
Garden  plants  that  are  grown  especially  for  their  foliage  use 
large  quantities  of  nitrogen  and  require  it  in  order  to  be  per- 
fectly healthy,  and  seed  producing  plants  use  large  quantities 
of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  Where  nitrogen  in  a  soluble 
form  is  very  abundant  so  as  to  be  in  excess  in  the  soil,  it  will 
be  found  that  the  plants  growing  on  it  are  noted  for  their 
dark  green  color  and  rank  leaf  and  stem  growth  and  for  late 
maturity  of  fruit  and  seed.  In  the  case  of  small  grain,  it  may 
result  in  such  a  weak,  soft,  succulent  growth  that  the  stems  can- 
not support  themselves,  and  they  become  "lodged,"  and  such 
growth  may  be  gained  without  an  increase  in  the  yield  of  grain. 
In  the  case  of  lawns,  a  soft  thick  sod  is  made;  in  the  case  of 
spinach,  cabbage  and  other  leaf  crops,  vigorous,  large  plants 
result;  while  tree  and  bush  fruits  under  such  conditions  make 
a  soft  late-maturing  growth  that  easily  winter  kills. 

On  the  contrary  when  soluble  potash  and  phosphoric  acid 
are  in  excess  in  the  soil,  the  plants  will  have  a  tendency  to 
produce  a  large  amount  of  seed  and  fruit  in  proportion  to 
straw  or  wood  and  to  mature  early.  This  is  a  desirable  condi- 
tion for  heaviest  grain  and  seed  crops.  In  the  case  of  bush 
and  tree  fruits,  it  conduces  to  fruitfulness,  early  maturity  of 
wood,  and  hardiness.  These  qualities  will  be  most  evident  if 
the  nitrogen  is  under  a  normal  quantity  in  the  soil. 

It  must  not  be  understood  from  this  that  any  of  these 
elements  are  hurtful,  for  they  are  all  absolutely  necessary  in 


24  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

proper  proportions  to  secure  best  results  ;  but  these  effects  fol- 
low when  they  are  greatly  in  excess. 

Except  in  few  instances,  fresh  manure  in  the  soil  is  not 
beneficial,  and  its  presence  prevents  close  cultivation  and 
causes  the  land  to  dry  out  very  quickly.  Such  manure  does 
not  afford  plant  food  for  some  time,  since  it  must  first  be 
thoroughly  decayed  before  it  is  of  any  value  to  plants.  Rotten 
manure  has  much  of  its  plant  food  in  an  available  condition. 

Manure  for  Early  and  Late  Crops.— Much  more  manure  and 
more  thoroughly  rotted  manure  is  required  for  early  than 
for  late  crops.  This  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  fact  that  early 
in  the  season  fermentation  goes  on  very  slowly  in  the  soil  and 
consequently  plant  food  is  liberated  very  slowly,  and  unless 
plant  food  is  supplied  in  a  quickly  available  form  it  is  of  no 
immediate  use  to  the  plant.  On  account  of  the  rapid  fermen- 
tation which  goes  on  in  the  soil  later  in  the  season,  crops  that 
mature  later  than  the  middle  of  the  summer  may  be  able  to  use 
the  plant  food  that  was  locked  up  in  fresh  manure  in  the  spring. 
For  instance,  the  results  from  fresh  cow  manure  may  be  almost 
nothing  if  applied  in  the  spring  to  a  crop  of  early  cabbage  or 
spinach,  while  for  a  late  crop  of  cabbage  or  for  corn  it  may 
answer  very  well.  Where  an  abundance  of  well-rotted  ma- 
nure cannot  be  obtained  in  the  spring  and  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  use  partially  rotted  manure  for  an  early  crop,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  use  nitrate  of  soda  or  some  other  quick  acting 
fertilizer  to  afford  plant  food  until  the  manure  has  rotted. 

Manures  for  Leguminous  Crops.— Leguminous  crops,  such  as 
peas,  beans,  clover,  alfalfa,  etc.,  do  not  need  as  much  nitro- 
genous manure  as  most  other  crops  that  are  so  rich  in  nitro- 
gen, since  their  presence  encourages  the  growth  of  nitric  acid 
ferments  in  the  soil.  Such  crops  improve  the  land  on  which 
they  grow  by  increasing  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  it,  and  in  this 
respect  they  are  different  from  all  other  garden  crops. 

Animal  Manure  should  generally  be  spread  evenly  on  the 
land  and  then  be  thinly  covered  with  the  soil;  yet  for  some 
crops  it  may  sometimes  be  most  desirable  to  apply  the  man- 
ure in  the  hill  or  furrow.  The  amount  that  should  be  ap- 
plied per  acre  varies  with  the  crop,  soil,  and  manure,  so 
no  exact  rule  can  be  given.  For  a  midsummer  or  late  matur- 
ing crop,    probably  eight  cords  of  well  rotted  stable  manure 


MANURES.  25 

per  acre  would  be  sufficient  in  almost  any  case,  and  much  less 
will  sometimes  be  enough,  while  for  an  early  crop  twice  as 
much  rotted  manure  might  be  used  to  advantage. 

The  effect  of  the  application  of  animal  manures  to  the 
land  will  remain  apparent  for  several  years.  It  is  generally 
considered  safe  to  estimate  that  not  more  than  one-third  the 
full  value  of  these  manures  is  taken  up  by  the  crop  growing 
on  the  land  the  year  it  is  applied. 

Manuring  the  Growing  Crop.— Sometimes  a  crop  comes  to 
a  standstill  on  account  of  having  exhausted  the  available 
fertilizing  material  in  the  soil.  In  such  cases  it  may  be  a 
good  plan  to  fertilize  the  growing  crop  with  hen  manure, 
nitrate  of  soda  or  other  quick  acting  fetilizer  and  cultivate 
the  land  at  once.  This  may  be  done  in  many  cases  by  apply- 
ing such  materials  to  the  crop  during  a  hard  rain  or  in  a  dry 
time  by  plowing  a  furrow  near  the  crop  and  placing  the 
fertilizer  in  the  furrow.  But  in  any  case  it  should  be  culti- 
vated into  the  soil  so  as  to  become  well  mixed  through  it,  and 
much  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  dry  fertilizer  from 
coming  in  contact  with  the  roots  of  the  plants. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  occasionally  change  the  manures  ap- 
plied to  land,  i.  e.  when  stable  manure  has  been  largely  used 
for  some  years  apply  some  commercial  fertilizer,  lime  or  land 
plaster,  and  when  commercial  fertilizers  have  been  used  for 
some  time  recourse  should  be  had  to  stable  manure. 

Liquid  Manure. — Liquid  manure  is  sometimes  used  for  en- 
couraging the  growth  of  plants.  It  should  never  be  made 
from  fresh  manure  but  from  that  which  is  thoroughly  rotted. 
Urine  may  be  used  as  a  liquid  manure  if  well  decomposed,  but 
it  should  always  be  used  with  great  caution  and  never  applied 
to  plants  if  fresh  or  undiluted.  Cow  and  horse  manure  are 
generally  preferred  for  making  liquid  mauure.  The  vessel  in 
which  it  is  to  be  made  should  be  one-third  full  of  manure  and 
filled  up  with  water.  The  whole  should  then  be  stirred  and 
allowed  to  settle.  The  clear  water  is  then  used  for  watering- 
plants. 

Liquid  fertilizer  is  also  made  by  dissolving  nitrate  of 
soda  in  water  as  mentioned  under  that  head.  Ammonia  is 
sometimes  used  in  very  small  quantities  in  water  applied  to 
plants,  especially  to  house  plants,  with  good  results. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

GARDEN   TILLAGE. 

By  the  proper  cultivation  of  the  garden  we  accomplish 
three  things:  (1)  The  weeds  are  kept  out  so  that  they  do  not 
shade  or  take  away  valuable  plant  food  and  moisture  from 
the  plants  whieh  we  desire  to  perfect.  (2)  The  surface  soil  is 
brorght  into  best  condition  to  resist  drought  that  is,  into  the 
best  condition  to  avail  itself  to  the  utmost  of  the  stores  of 
water  in  the  subsoil  and  to  prevent  the  evaporation  of  this 
water  from  the  surface  soil.  ( 3 )  The  inert  plant  food  in  the 
soil  is  made  soluble  by  chemical  action,  which  is  increased  by 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil. 

Prevention  and  Killing  of  Weeds. — The  methods  best  adapted 
for  keeping  weeds  out  of  the  garden  are  many  and  varied,  and 
depend  much  upon  the  condition  and  kind  of  soil  in  which  the 
weeds  grow,  upon  the  kind  of  crop  and  the  habits  of  the  weeds 
themselves.  The  most  important  step  in  making  easy  the  pre- 
vention of  weeds  in  the  garden  is  the  harrowing  or  other 
thorough  cultivation  of  the  land,  just  before  the  planting  of 
the  seed  to  kill  the  young  weeds.  If  this  is  done  thoroughly, 
the  weeds  do  not  have  any  better  chance  than  the  crop.  If  this 
is  not  done,  the  weeds  will  be  ahead  of  the  crop  in  growth, 
and  if  started  ever  so  little  when  the  crop  is  planted  the  result 
generally  is  that  the  crop  is  seriously  overgrown  by  them  before 
it  is  large  enough  to  be  cultivated. 

When  garden  seeds  that  require  a  long  time  to  germinate 
are  sown,  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  lightly  rake  over  the  land 
with  an  ordinary  fine-toothed  rake  even  before  the  crop  ap- 
pears above  the  ground,  providing  the  work  is  so  carefully 
done  as  not  to  disturb  the  seeds.  This  is  an  easy  matter  in 
case  of  the  larger  garden  seeds,  while  it  would  be  impossible 
with  the  finer  seeds,  as  they  are  invariably  planted  shallow. 
When  the  seed  is  sown  with  a  drill,  the  line  of  the  row  may  be 
plainly  seen  even  before  the  plants  come  up,  thus  making  it 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING.  27 

easy  to  commence  cultivating-  in  advance  of  the  weeds.  In 
case  of  such  crops  as  carrots,  onions,  beets  and  parsnips, 
which  are  quite  delicate  when  young-,  cultivation  should  begin 
with  some  hand  garden  cultivator,  even  if  it  is  intended  later 
on  to  cultivate  it  with  a  ,horse  implement  and  the  crop  is 
planted  with  this  purpose  in  view.  Such  close  and  careful 
work  cannot  be  done  with  any  horse  implement  now  in  use  as 
with  the  best  hand  implements.  Careful  early  cultivation  is 
of  the  utmost  importance,  since  if  the  weeds  are  removed  when 
they  are  young  the  work  of  weeding-  is  small.  If  allowed  to 
remain  until  well  rooted,  their  removal  is  often  a  very  serious 
matter,  and  frequently,  if  neglected  at  this  early  stage,  the 
weeds  become  so  firmly  established  as  to  make  it  a  question 
whether  to  remove  them  or  to  plow  under  the  whole  crop ;  and 
often  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  adopt  the  latter  alternative. 
Aside  from  its  effect  in  the  prevention  of  weeds,  early  culti- 
vation is  of  the  greatest  value  in  breaking  up  the  crust  that 
packs  firmly  around  the  tender  growing-  stems  of  plants  and 
which  seriously  interferes  with  their  growth.  Like  all  surface 
cultivation  it  is  also  an  aid  in  the  conservation  of  moisture  in 
the  soil. 

Importance  of  not  Allowing  Weeds  to  go  to  Seed. — A  common 
source  of  weed  infection  is  often  found  in  the  few  weeds  that 
are  allowed  to  go  to  seed  toward  the  end  of  the  growing  sea- 
son in  the  maturing  crop  or  after  the  crop  has  been  gathered. 
To  some  persons  it  often  seems  a  small  matter  to  allow  a  few 
plants  of  pig-weed,  purslane,  tumble  weed  and  weeds  of  other 
kinds  to  go  to  seed  in  the  garden,  but  absolute  cleanliness 
should  be  the  rule  in  this  particular,  and  it  is  by  far  the  most 
economical  in  practice  in  the  long  run.  It  requires  but  little 
labor  and  saves  much  useless  expense  to  destroy  weeds  that 
are  going-  to  seed.  If  the  preventives  for  weeds  here  suggest- 
ed are  closely  followed,  hand  weeding  will  be  reduced  to  a  min- 
imum and  will  often  be  unnecessary  with  any  crop. 

Weed  Seeds  in  Manure  for  the  Garden. — While  the  discus- 
sion of  the  subject  of  manures  for  the  garden  is  not  the 
special  object  of  this  chapter,  yet  some  reference  to  the  sub- 
ject is  quite  necessary  in  considering-  the  subject  of  weed 
eradication.  The  people  of  this  section  have  not  yet  learned 
the  great   value  of  barnyard  manure  and   its  proper  prepar- 


28  GARDEN  TILLAGE. 

ation  for  best  results  in  the  soil.  This  is  a  subject  of  vast 
importance,  and  one  that  in  the  future  will  receive  far  more 
thought  than  at  present.  The  manure  applied  to  the  garden  is 
often  coarse  and  contains  many  weed  seeds  and  is  a  fruitful 
source  of  weed  infection.  If  the  manure  intended  for  the  gar- 
den contains  the  seeds  of  weeds,  it  should  be  piled  up  and  al- 
lowed to  ferment  until  the  whole  mass  is  thoroughly  rotted, 
which  process  will  kill  the  weed  seeds  in  it.  It  is  seldom  ad- 
visable to  use  fresh  manure  in  the  garden,  and  it  should  only 
be  applied  in  this  condition  when  free  from  weeds  and  then 
only  for  some  late  maturing  crops,  in  which  case  there  will  be 
time  for  it  to  rot  before  the  crops  need  it. 

Plowing. — In  the  western  states,  where  the  summers  are 
often  very  dry,  vegetable  land  should  generally  be  plowed  in 
the  autumn  so  that  the  subsoil  may  become  sufficiently  com- 
pacted by  spring  to  readily  transmit  the  subsoil  moisture  to 
the  surface.  Such  treatment,  by  forming  a  dust  blanket,  re- 
tards evaporation  from  the  land  during  dry  autumns  and  dry 
winters  when  there  is  no  snow  on  the  ground.  Fall  plowing 
also  puts  the  land  in  the  best  shape  for  the  action  of  the 
elements  and  the  development  of  plant  food  and  may  be  a 
means  of  killing  very  many  cut  worms,  white  grubs  and  other 
insects  that  winter  over  in  the  soil.  If  plowing  is  left  until 
spring  in  this  climate,  it  should  be  done  as  early  as  practic- 
able and  not  so  deep  as  when  done  in  the  fall.  Deep  spring 
plowing  leaves  too  much  of  the  upper  soil  loose  and  not  suf- 
ficiently compact  to  enable  the  subsoil  water  to  easily  reach 
the  surface  roots — but  where  irrigation  is  practiced  there  is 
not  much  difference  in  this  respect.  The  soil  for  the  garden 
should  ordinarily  be  plowed  to  a  depth  of  about  eight  inches, 
yet  in  the  case  of  some  light  soils  half  this  depth  may  be 
preferable. 

Subsoil  Plowing,  or  Subsoiling,  is  a  term  applied  to  the 
loosening  of  the  land  just  below  where  the  plow  ordinarily 
goes.  In  doing  this,  the  subsoil  is  not  brought  to  the  surface, 
but  a  special  plow  is  used  which  follows  an  ordinary  plow. 
This  has  no  mold  board,  but  has  a  good  point  and  shoe,  and 
these  loosen  the  subsoil  without  raising  it.  This  process 
maybe  hurtful  or  of  no  value  to  subsoils  so  loose  as  to  per- 
mit the  roots  of  plS^0|»gi|baidily,  push  into  them  and  should 

A.  <&,  e^ 


°OLLEQ 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING.  29 

not  be  applied  to  them,  but  for  some  of  the  very  stiff  sub- 
soils of  this  section  it  is  a  great  improvement,  since  it  deepens 
the  tillable  land  so  that  the  roots  of  the  plants  can  push  more 
readily  into  it.  This  loosening-  of  the  stiff  subsoil  also  puts 
it  into  just  the  right  condition  for  receiving  and  holding 
water.  It  is  thus  sometimes  a  great  help  in  carrying  plants  over 
droughty  periods.  Subsoiling  gives  best  results  when  per- 
formed in  the  autumn.  If  done  in  the  spring  and  the  oper- 
ation is  followed  by  dry  weather,  the  land  is  apt  to  be  left  too 
loose  to  hold  moisture  well  that  year  and  consequently  will  suffer 


Figure  3.— Root  of  onion  plant  with  earth  washed  off.     The  roots  went  to 
the  depth  of  eighteen  inches  in  the  earth. 

from  drought.  It  is  seldom,  even  on  stiff  land,  that  subsoil- 
ing is  needed  more  than  once  in  four  or  five  years,  for  after 
being-  once  loosened  the  roots  of  plants  penetrate  it  and  keep 
it  open.  The  roots  of  our  garden  crops  push  deeper  into  the 
land  than  is  generally  understood :  even  the  onion,  which  is 
perhaps  as  shallow  rooted  as  any  garden  crop  grown,  often 
pushes  its  roots   to   a  depth   of  eighteen   inches   in  good  soil, 


30  GARDEN  TILLAGE. 

while  corn  roots  have  been  followed  to  a  depth  of  four  feet. 
It  is  probable  that  in  good  land  almost  any  of  our  garden 
crops  will  send  their  roots  eighteen  or  more  inches  deep. 

Ridging  the  Land. — If  the  land  is  liable  to  be  too  wet  for 
planting  in  early  spring,  it  is  sometimes  a  good  practice  in 
plowing  it  to  turn  several  furrows  back  to  back,  and  thus 
leave  the  land  in  ridges  over  winter.  If  these  ridges,  or 
"lands,"  are  made  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  wide,  they  may  be 
dragged  and  planted  in  the  spring  without  further  plowing. 
For  some  crops  it  is  often  best  to  open  the  furrows  again  in 


\, 


Figure  4.— Cross  section  of  ridged  land. 


the  spring  and  thus  leave  the  land  level.  This  method  of 
treatment  permits  of  working  the  land  much  earlier  in  the 
spring  than  it  otherwise  could  be  worked  if  plowed  flat.  It 
also  leaves  the  soil  in  very  good  shape  for  the  action  of  frost 
on  its  particles  during  the  winter.  For  early  crops  on  flat  or 
heavy  soils,  it  is  a  most  desirable  treatment.  The  objection 
to  it  is  that  if  not  turned  back  in  the  spring  the  dead  furrows 
interfere  with  cultivation;  if  the  land  is  thus  turned  back  in 
the  spring,  it  may  be  left  too  loose.  But  admitting  these  ob- 
jections, even  then  there  are  often  cases  where  this  treatment 
would  be  very  desirable.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  too,  in 
cultivating  the  garden  that,  while  the  soil  in  it  may  be  too 
loose,  it  cannot  be  too  rich  or  too  deep,  nor  can  the  subsoil 
if  not  of  too  impervious  a  nature  be  too  compact,  and  yet  it 
must  be  loose  enough  to  permit  of  the  roots  entering  it  and 
the  water  percolating  through  it. 

General  Cultivation  of  Garden  Crops.— The  methods  to  be 
pursued  in  the  general  cultivation  of  garden  crops  vary 
somewhat  according  to  the  soil,  season  and  crop.  However, 
it  is  very  important  to  remember  that  the  destruction  of  weeds 
is  but  a  small  part  of  the  work  of  cultivation.  The  most  im- 
portant part  in  this  section  is  to  so  fit  the  soil  that  it  may 
best    withstand   drought.      This   is   accomplished  by  frequent 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING.  31 

shallow  cultivation  during  the  period  of  drought.  The  first 
implements  to  use  in  the  care  of  such  crops  as  are  generally 
cultivated  by  hand  are  those  that  work  the  soil  to  only  a  very 
slight  depth,  close  to  the  plants.  Such  implements  may  be  used 
just  as  the  seedlings  are  breaking  ground.  As  soon  as  the 
plants  have  gained  some  little  strength,  implements  should  be 
used  that  will  go  deeper,  until  a  depth  of  two  or  three  inches 
can  be  easily  worked  without  endangering  the  safety  of  the 
crop  by  covering  the  plants  with  dirt.  It  is  doubtful  if  any 
of  our  garden  crops  should  ever  be  cultivated  more  than  three 
inches  deep,  and  it  is  very  certain  that  many  crops  are  in- 
jured by  cultivating  deeply  very  close  to  the  plants,  in  which 
case  the  roots  are  cut  off  near  their  upper  ends  and  thus 
wholly  destroyed.  Cultivation  in  a  period  of  drought  results 
in  forming  a  mulch  or  blanket  of  dry  earth  on  the  surface  of 
the  land,  which  prevents  the  moisture  from  passing  into  the 


Figure  5.— Iron  Age  horse  hoe. 

atmosphere,  and  a  rather  shallow  dust  blanket,  say  two  inches 
deep,  accomplishes  this  purpose.  A  compact  subsoil  readily 
transmits  the  water  upwards  to  the  surface  soil  in  the  same 
manner  that  a  lamp  wick  carries  the  oil  to  the  flame.  At  the 
surface  the  soil  water  is  prevented  from  evaporating  by  the 
blanket  of  loose  earth,  and  is  thus  saved  in  the  upper  subsoil 
and  lower  and  middle  parts  of  the  furrow  slice  for  the  roots 
of  the  crop.  Loose  surface  soil  is  a  good  non-conductor  of 
water.  During  the  growth  of  a  crop  the  surface  soil  should 
never  be  left  long  with  a  crust  on  it,  but  should  be  stirred 
after  each  rain  or  artificial  watering. 

Cultivation   to   Develop   Plant   Food. — Nearly  all  land  in  this 
section  contains  immense  quantities  of  plant  food.     Professor 


32 


GARDEN  TILLAGE. 


Snyder  has  shown  that  our  average  wheat-producing-  soils 
contain  enough  nitrogen  to  raise  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
successive  crops  of  wheat.  But  only  a  very  little  of  this 
material  is  ever  at  one  time  in  a  condition  in  which  the  plant 
can  take  it  up;  nearly  all  of  it  is  insoluble.  By  chemical 
action  and  fermentation  in  the  sell  plant,  food  is  set  free. 
This  is  increased  and  made  more  complete  by  admitting-  air 
into  the  soil.  Hence  the  reason  for  deep  plowing  in  the  fall, 
which  allows  the  air  and  water  to  enter  and  thus  develop  plant 
food.  This,  also,  is  an  important  fact  to  be  kept  in  mind  in 
cultivating  land.  Where  the  soil  can  be  kept  moist  through 
the  summer,  deep  spring  plowing  is  an  advantage,  as  it  opens 
the  soil  to  the  air :  but  on  account  of  the^liability  to  drought 
the  practice  is  a  poor  one  for  this -section. 


'2**  \> 


.'•i*-  -;-  •**«:,. fewr'-1   \<*F '-,'£?>:■:*        *  *•»*»■.  :♦- -,♦.-- V, 


Figure  6.— Planet  Jr.  fine  tootn  cultivator. 
GARDEN    IMPLEMENTS. 

Implements,  such  as  plows,  harrows,  etc,  used  for  prepar- 
ing the  land  for  ordinary  farm  crops  are  also  used  in  fitting 
the  land  for  garden  crops.  In  addition,  however,  there  are  a 
number  of  tools  and  implements  which  are  not  commonly 
used  in  growing  the  farm  crops.  These  may  be  roughly 
classed  as  follows : 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


33 


Horse  Hoes  and  Horse  Cultivators  are  much  alike  in  general 
construction,  but  each  is  adapted  to  special  purposes,  and 
both  are  very  desirable.  The  horse  hoes  are  for  use  when 
the  land  is  very  hard  and  weedy:  they  may  also  be  used  for 
ridging  the  land  and  for  drawing- the  earth  from  or  throwing  it 
towards  the  plants.  For  this  purpose  they  have  various  at- 
tachments. 

The  cultivators  are  especially  for  the  purpose  of  stirring 
the  surface  soil  and  keeping  a  dust  blanket;  they  do  not  re- 
move weeds  that  are  well  established.  They  throw  very  little 
soil  sideways  and  on  this  account  may  be  used  for  cultivating 
very  close  to  small  plants.  Among  the  best  of  these  are  those 
known  under  the  names  of  Planet  Jr.  and  Iron  Age. 


Figure  7.— Opening  and  closing  furrows  with  hand  garden  cultivators. 

Hand  Cultivators. — There  are  many  good  forms  of  hand 
cultivators  on  the  market,  and  they  are  a  necessity  in  every 
garden  containing  over  a  quarter  of  an  acre.  They  are  made 
so  as  to  be  adjusted  to  various  widths  between  the  rows,  and  a 
kind,  called  straddle  cultivators,  is  made  so  as  to  cut  on  two 
sides  of  a  row  of  plants  at  one  time,  which  is  often  quite  an 
advantage.  They  also  have  various  attachments  for  special 
purposes.  Among  the  best  of  these  are  Jewel  wheel  hoe,  Nev 
Universal  wheel  hoe.  Gem  garden  cultivator  and  the  several 
kinds  manufactured  by  the  Planet  Jr.  Co. 

Seed  Drills. — These  are  necessary  in  every  garden.     There 


34 


GARDEN  TILLAGE. 


are  many  good  kinds  offered  by  dealers.  Among  the  best  are 
the  New  Model  drill,  Planet  Jr.  Hill-Dropping  drill  and 
Matthews  drill. 


'>^^^&M^.f. 


Figure  8.— Garden  drills.  (1)  A.  H.  Mathews.  (2)  Planet  Jr.  combined  drill. 
(3)  Mathews  combined  drill.  (4)  New  Model  drill.  (5)  Planet  Jr.  Hill 
Dropping  drill. 

Combined  Seed  Drills  and  Cultivators. — These  are  very  useful  im- 
plements for  a  small  garden:  for  a  large  garden,  it  is  im- 
portant to  have  the  seed  drill  and  cultivator  separate,  but  in 
a  small  garden  these  combined  machines  can  be  used  to  good 
advantage,  and  thereby  make  a  saving  in  first  cost.  Among 
the  best  of  these  is  the  combination  drill  and  cultivator 
made  by  the  Ames  Plow  Co..  of  Boston,  Mass.,  and  the  Planet 
Jr.  combined  drill  and  cultivator. 

Marker. — The  illustration  shows  a  good  form  of  a  marker  for 
the  garden.  It  is  easily  made  by  any  one  who  is  handy  with 
tools  and  is  used  for  marking  out  rows. 


Figure  9.— A  simple  garden  marker. 

Dibbers  are  generallv  made  from  a  crooked  stick  shod  with 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

iron  and   are  very  useful  in  transplanting-  ( Fig.  10' 
ter  form  made  of  steel  is  shown  in  figure  10a. 


35 

A  bet- 


Figure  10.— Common  wooden 
dibber. 


Figure  10a.— Improved  flat 
steel  dibber. 


Scuffle  Attachments  for  Hand  Garden  Cultivators. — Fig.  11  shows 
two  sets  of  implements,  designed  to  be  attached  to  the  ordinary 
wheel  cultivators,  which  will  work  close  up  to  young  plants 
so  as  to  cut  off  the  weeds  just  under  the  surface  of  the  soil, 
and  will  be  found  very  useful  in  many  places.  They  should  be 
made  out  of  tool  steel,  and  any  good  blacksmith  can  make 
them.    The  length  of  blades  may  be  made  to  suit  the  work. 


L 


3  I 


<3 


Figure  11.— Home  made  attach-  Figure  12.— Scuffle  hoe. 

ments  for  garden  cultivators. 

The  Scuffle  Hoe,  shown  in  Fig.  12.  is  an  excellent  old-fash- 
ioned implement  for  shallow  cultivation,  such  as  is  needed  in 
early  spring  in  the  garden.      Besides,  it  is    very    cheap    and 


36  GARDEN  TILLAGE. 

simple  and  can  be  made  by  any  handy  blacksmith.  It  cannot 
be  recommended  to  take  the  place  of  the  improved  wheel 
hoes  for  large  gardens,  but  in  a  small  garden  it  may  be  used 
for  the  work  of  shallow  cultivation  to  good  advantage. 
It  does  not  work  the  soil  deep  enough  for  the  best  summer 
cultivation. 

Plank  Drag,  or  Smoothing  Board. — The  form  of  this  is  clearly 
shown  in  figure  13.  It  is  used  for  crushing  lumpy  soil  and 
smoothing  off  and  levelling  the  land  preparatory  to  seed  sow- 
ing or  planting,  and  will  be   found   very  useful.      It  can   be 


Figure  13.— Plank  drag  for  smoothing  the  surface  of  land. 

made  by  any  one.  The  planks  are  two  by  ten  inches 
on  the  ends  and  eight  feet  long,  lapped  two  inches  and 
nailed.  These  are  strengthened  by  two  six-inch  cleats  securely 
bolted  on.  It  is  drawn  by  a  chain  fastened  at  the  front  cor- 
ners. 

The  Zephaniah  Breed's  Weeder  is  an  excellent  implement  for 
cultivating  young  corn,  potatoes,  etc.,  for  which  purpose  a 
fine  toothed  harrow  is  often  used. 

Potato  Diggers. — Of  the  cheaper  forms  of  potato  diggers, 
probably  the  Hallock  Improved  is  the  most  perfect.  It  does 
very  good  work  and  where  not  over  five  acres  of  potatoes  are 
to  be  dug,  it  is  probably  all  that  is  needed.  Where  the  potato 
is  raised  on  a  large  scale,  however,  it  is  generally  desirable  to 
use  an  elevating  digger.  Of  these  the  Hoover  and  the 
Dowden  are  probably  the  best  to  be  had.  They  both  work 
on  the  same  principle. 

Spray  Pumps. — Almost  every  farmer  and  gardener  needs  a 
good  spray  pump  for  applyingParis  green  to  potatoes  and  vines 
and  for  spraying  trees,  vines,  etc..  with  fungicides  or  insecti- 
cides. For  this  purpose  some  form  of  the  knapsack  spray  pump 
is  most  desirable,  where  the  work  to  be  done  is  not  very  exten- 
sive.    For  applying  these  substances  on   a  large  scale,  some 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


37 


special  apparatus  is  needed,  and  there  are  many  kinds  offered 
by  manufacturers.  In  figure  14  is  shown  the  barrel  spray 
pump,  which  has  been  found  most  convenient  at  the  Minnesota 
Experiment  Station  for  general  work  about  the  grounds,  such 
as  spraying  trees  of  different  kinds  where  the  knapsack 
sprayer  is    insufficient.      The  barrel  is  fasteued  to  a   wooden 


Figure  14.— Barrel  spray  pump,  showing  cone  shaped  strainer  to  the  left, 
frame  and  may  be  placed  in  a  wagon  or  on  a  stone  boat  when 
it  is  to  be  used. 

The  essential  parts  are  a  good  hardwood  barrel,  such  as 
a  linseed  oil  barrel,  mounted  on  and  securely  fastened  to  a 
light  framework  of  oak.  On  the  barrel  and  at  one  end  is 
mounted  a  powerful  force  pump,  with  attachments,  capable  of 
throwing  two  or  three  fine,  strong  sprays  at  one  time.  The 
liquid  in  the  barrel  is  kept  agitated  by  a  small  stream  of 
water  passing  through  a  one-fourth  inch  pipe,  having  a  one-six- 
teenth inch  wide  opening  near  the  feed  pipe  of  the  pump,  in  the 


38  GARDEN  TILLAGE. 

bottom  of  the  barrel.  On  one  end  of  the  barrel  is  shown  a 
cone  shaped  strainer,  which  is  the  best  form  to  use.  There  are 
many  styles  of  spray  nozzles  on  the  market.  For  general  use 
the  McGowen,  Vermorel  or  Bordeaux  are  best. 

The  lower  end  of  the  feed  pipe  is  covered  with  a  fine  brass 
screen.  In  the  center  of  the  side  of  the  barrel  is  an  open- 
ing, eight  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  tight  fitting  cover.  This 
is  so  large  that  the  barrel  may  be  easily  cleaned.  The  whole 
expense  of  making  this  machine  was  as  follows:  One  linseed 
oil  barrel,  $1;  pump,  $6.50;  50  feet  of  1  inch  hose,  $3;  strainer, 
$1.50;  2  nozzles,  $1.25;  bolts,  etc.,  50  cents.  Total  cost,  not  in- 
cluding labor  of  above,  $13.75. 

In  buying  machinery,  it  is  well  to  regard  with  suspicion 
those  that  are  very  complicated,  as  the  simplest  is  generally 
the  most  durable  in  the  end. 


CHAPTER  V. 
SEED   SOWING. 

The  condition  for  the  successful  germination  of  seed  in 
the  land  is  that  it  should  be  placed  so  as  to  have  a  reason- 
able amount  of  heat,  moisture  and  air.  To  secure  these  con- 
ditions in  practice,  the  seed  should  be  imbedded  in  mellow 
soil,  and  this  packed  around  it  just  firm  enough  to  bring  it  in- 
to actual  contact  and  make  sure  of  capillary  action  in  the 
soil.  If  the  soil  is  left  loose  over  and  around  the  seed, 
capillary  action  cannot  continue,  and  the  seed  is  liable  to  dry 
out  unless  the  season  is  very  wet:  on  the  other  hand,  the  soil 
must  not  be  allowed  to  become  too  compact  over  the  seed,  or 
the  young  seedling  will  not  be  able  to  push  throught  it.  No 
matter  how  carefully  the  sowing  may  have  been  done,  the  suc- 
cessful germination  of  the  seed  is  largely  dependent  upon  the 
condition  of  the  ground.  Unless  the  seed  is  carefully  and 
properly  placed  and  covered,  the  crop  cannot  get  a  good  start, 
no  matter  how  well  the  land  has  been  prepared  or  how  good 
the  seed  is.  Seeds  will  not  sprout  in  the  absence  of  air, 
and  on  this  account  when  deeply  buried  some  weed  seeds  may 
retain  their  germinating  power  for  many  years.  Cases  are 
on  record  of  yellowmustard  seeds  germinating  after  remaining 
in  the  land  for  eighteen  years.  Very  frequently,  on  plow- 
ing land  that  has  not  been  stirred  for  a  long  time,  the  weeds  of 
certain  kinds  are  very  abundant,  showing  that  they  must  have 
been  in  the  soil  a  long  time  but  could  not  germinate  away 
from  the  air. 

Depth  to  Plant.  Most  of  the  common,  smaller  garden  seeds 
are  planted  one  inch  deep,  except  celery  and  some  others. 
Peas  and  corn,  are  generally  planted  from  two  to  three  inches 
deep.  Peas,  however,  are  sometimes  planted  as  deep  as  six 
inches.  These  matters  will  be  found  referred  to  under  their 
respective  heads. 

Always  sow  in  freshly  stirred   ground,  as   the  seed  is  far 


40  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

more  liable  to  get  a  good  start  in  it.  than  in  soil  that  has  lain 
untilled  long  enough  to  become  crusty  and  lumpy.  Then,  if  the 
seeds  are  planted  immediately  after  cultivation  has  been  given 
and  while  the  soil  is  still  moist,  the  weeds  will  hardly  get  the 
start  of  the  crop  planted,  if  reasonable  care  is  used.  In  fact, 
following  this  rale  will  genet'ally  insure  success  as  long  as 
there  is  life  in  the  seed  and  moisture  in  the  soil.  Again,  it  is 
preferable  to  sow  seeds  immediately  after  a  rain  rather  than 
just  before  it  comes,  since  in  the  case  of  the  finer  seeds  the 
crust  which  forms  immediately  after  a  rain  may  be  so  com- 
pact that  the  young  seedlings  cannot  push  through.  When  a 
crust  thus  forms  over  seeds,  it  is  sometimes  a  good  plan  to  go 
over  the  land  before  the  crust  is  very  compact  and  break  it 
up  with  rakes,  but  this  should  be  done  in  a  most  careful 
manner,  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  seeds.  If  a  crust  forms  over 
line  seeds,  such  as  celery,  tobacco  and  others,  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  keep  the  crust  moist,  at  least,  until  the  seeds  have 
pushed  through  it.  Soil  that  is  much  dried  out  in  mid-sum- 
mer is  often  quite  an  obstacle  to  the  ready  germination  of 
seed  sown  at  that  time,  but  if  the  seed  is  sown  shortly  after 
the  ground  is  plowed  and  somewhat  deeper  than  it  is  generally 
sown  in  the  early  spring,  and  care  is  taken  to  firm  the 
earth  very  carefully  immediately  after  sowing,  the  seed  will 
generally  come  up  very  quickly  at  this  season.  But  the  land 
should  not  be  worked  for  seed  sowing  or  for  any  other  pur- 
pose when  very  wet  and  sticky,  as  seeds  cannot  be  properly 
planted  in  such  a  soil. 

The  Time  for  Sowing  the  various  seeds  varies  greatly  and 
will  be  found  referred  to  separately  under  the  several  heads. 
Some  seeds  such  as  spinach,  onion,  lettuce  and  radish  may 
be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked,  while  the  seed 
of  such  tropical  plants  as  corn,  cucumber  and  squash  should 
not  be  sown  until  the  ground  is  well  warmed.  The  early  sown 
hardier  seeds  are  often  frozen  up  in  the  ground  and,  perhaps, 
covered  with  snow  without  injury:  in  fact,  a  covering  of 
snow   seems  to  help   seeds  of  the  hardy  kinds   to  grow. 

Sowing  in  Stiff  Clay  Soils.  It  is  comparatively  easy  to  make 
seeds  germinate  in  sand,  sandy  loam,  muck  or  soil  rich  in 
humus,  provided  they  contain  a  reasonable  amount  of  mois- 
ture, but    in    stiff  clay  soils    this    is    often    quite    a    different 


SEED  SOWING.  41 

matter,  as  the  land  becomes  crusted  over  so  completely  as  to 
prevent  the  smaller  seedling's  from  pushing  through.  For  such 
land,  it  is  desirable  to  use  rather  more  seed  than  would  be 
needed  in  more  porous  soils,  for  the  reason  that  while  a  few 
plants  could  not  push  up  the  crusted  surface,  yet  the  many 
can  do  so:  and  while  thick  seeding  increases  the  total  cost 
of  seed,  yet  the  certainty  of  thus  securing  a  full  stand  is  so 
great  an  advantage  as  to  well  repay  this  additional  outlay, 
and  the  expense  for  thinning,  if  it  has  to  be  clone  at  all,  is 
about  the  same  for  thick  as  for  thin  seeding. 

Sowing  Seed  with  Machine.  When  the  soil  is  prepared  for 
best  work  with  a  garden  drill,  it  is  generally  in  the  best  condition 
for  the  germination  of  the  seeds.  The  whole  surface  should 
be  fine,  mellow  and  even.  There  are  only  one  or  two  garden 
seeds  that  cannot  readily  be  sown  with  any  of  the  half  dozen 
good  garden  drills  that  are  offered  in  the  market.  Garden 
drills,  when  properly  used,  will  sow  and  cover  seed  much  more 
uniformly  than  it  can  possibly  be  sown  and  covered,  by  hand, 
and  they  are  a  necessity  in  any  well  managed,  modern  garden. 
It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  have  straight  rows  in  the 
garden,  for  they  are  more  economical  of  space  than  crooked 
rows  and  are  more  perfectly  cultivated  with  the  wheel  hoes 
and  cultivator,  besides,  crookedrows  are  unsightly  and  sloven- 
ly. It  is  generally  desirable  in  using  a  garden  drill  to  mark 
off  the  first  row  with  a  line  to  get  it  straight.  If  this  is  done 
to  begin  with,  the  subsequent  rows  may  be  kept  parallel  by 
using  the  marker  always  found  on  such  machines,  providing* 
constant  care  is  used.  Some  growers  prefer  to  mark  out  all  the 
rows  with  a  marker  and  then  run  the  seed  sower  in  the  marks,  but 
for  a  careful  workman  this  is  useless  labor.  Seed  drills  are 
made  with  a  point  to  open  furrows,  a  coverer  for  filling  in  af- 
ter the  drill,  a  wheel  for  compacting  the  soil  on  the  seed  and  a 
marker  for  the  next  row.  To  use  a  garden  seed  sower 
most  successfully  requires  good  judgment,  but  a  little 
careful  experimenting  will  soon  enable  any  one  accustomed 
to  tools  to  handle  these  most  useful  implements,  to  good  ad- 
vantage. Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  sow  seed  when  the 
ground  is  so  wet  that  it  is  not  safe  to  firm  the  soil  over  it 
When  such  is  the  case,  the  rear  wheel  is  removed 
in    sowing.     In  other  cases,  when  it  is  desirable  to  firm    the 


42  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

soil  more  compactly,  the  press  wheel  may  be  used  for  this 
purpose,  by  going  over  the  rows  a  second  time.  It  is  a  good 
plan  in  doing  this,  to  remove  the  drill  point  or  else  tip  the 
machine  up  until  the  point  is  off  the  gi'ound.  In  the  case  of 
a  few  seeds  that  are  rather  delicate  about  germinating,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  sow  the  rows  a  second  time  with  the  seed  sower 
and  thus  mix  the  seed  up  with  the  soil.  This  method  puts  in 
a  large  amount  of  seed,  leaves  the  seed  at  various  depths,  and 
some  of  it  is  sure  to  grow. 

Sowing  Seed  by  Hand.  When  only  a  very  small  quantity  of 
seed  is  to  be  sown,  it  is  often  best  to  sow  by  hand.  When 
this  is  the  plan,  the  rows  are  made  by  the  garden  marker  and 
the  seed  distributed  in  them  evenly  by  hand.  The  rows  are 
then  covered  by  the  soil  being  drawn  into  them  with  a  rake 
and  are  firmed  by  passing  over  the  seed  with  the  feet.  If  the 
soil  is  dry,  it  cannot  be  made  too  firm;  if  moist,  care  must  be 
used  to  prevent  packing  it  too  hard.  In  the  case  of  very  fine 
seed,  sown  in  dry  weather,  many  devices  are  used  to  bring 
about  germination,  such  as  watering,  shading  the  soil  with 
boards,  covering  the  earth  with  cloths  and  the  like. 

Using  the  Feet  for  Firming  the  Soil  Around  Seeds.  Many  seeds 
are  lost  from  the  failure  to  properly  firm  the  soil  over  those  sown 
during  dry  weather.  Many  devices  have  been  suggested 
and  used  for  securing  this  desirable  condition,  but  for  general 
garden  purposes  no  method  or  implement  ever  used  can  vie 
with  the  proper  use  of  the  feet  for  this  purpose.  While  this 
matter  is  referred  to  elsewhere,  it  is  put  under  this  special 
head  to  call  attention  to  this  useful  fact.  Peter  Henderson 
was  the  first  to  call  attention  to  the  importance  of  this  method, 
and  describes  it  as  follows:  "After  plowing,  harrowing  and 
levelling  the  land  smoothly,  lines  are  drawn  by  the  'markers', 
which  make  furrows  about  two  inches  deep  and  a  foot  apart. 
After  the  man  who  sows  the  seed  follows  another  who  with 
the  ball  of  the  right  foot  presses  down  his  full  weight  on  every 
inch  of  soil  where  the  seed  has  been  sown  ;  the  rows  are  then 
slightly  levelled  longitudinally  with  the  rake,  a  light  roller  is 
passed  over  them  and  the  operation  is  done. ' '  Those  who 
have  practiced  this  method,  know  it  gives  most  excellent  re- 
sults. In  my  own  practice,  in  sowing  seed  in  dry  weather,  even 
with  a  seed  sower,  which  has   a  wheel  for  firming  the  soil,  I 


SEED  SOWING.  43 

have  frequently,  and  to  advantage,  walked  the  rows  with  the 
heel  of  one  foot  close  to  and  in  front  of  the  toe  of  the  other, 
pressing  down  on  the  row. 

Thinning.  It  is  generally  'best  to  sow  the  seed  of  most  gar- 
den vegetables  much  more  thickly  than  the  plants  should 
stand  when  mature.  This  is  done  to  make  sure  of  having 
enough  plants  to  stock  the  land,  and  it  is  a  good  practice. 
It  is  important  also,  to  let  every  young  plant  in  the  garden 
have  room  enough  for  perfect  development,  and  this  can  only 
be  secured,  where  thick  seeding  is  practiced,  by  thinning  out. 
It  is  a  very  general  fault  of  beginners  in  gardening,  that  they 
try  to  grow  too  many  plants  on  their  land.  This  is  a 
grave  mistake  and  is  no  better  in  results  than  permitting 
weeds  to  grow.  Every  plant  in  excess  of  what  can  properly 
mature  on  the  land  is  in  its  effect  a  weed  and  should 
be  treated  as  such.  In  the  home  garden,  where  the  thin- 
nings are  valuable,  as  in  the  case  of  beets,  lettuce,  etc., 
the  work  of  thinning  need  not  be  done  all  at  once,  but 
as  the  plants  need  room.  In  the  market  garden,  it  is 
best  to  thin  out  to  the  full  distance  at  one  time.  Do  not  allow 
the  seedlings  to  get  drawn  and  spindling  before  thinning,  but 
do  it,  while  they  areyoung  and  before  they  crowd  one  another. 
The  proper  distances  between  plants  seem  very  large  when 
the  plants  are  small,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  later  on 
anything  less  than  the  proper  distance  injures  the  crop.  One 
must  have  determination  enough  to  throw  away  many  nice 
plants  in  order  to  make  room  for  those  that  are  to  mature. 
It  is  better  to  give  too  much  than  too  little  roomto  plants. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


TRANSPLANTING. 


Avoid  transplanting-  as  much  as  possible.  Whatever  may 
be  said  of  its  merits  elsewhere  does  not  apply  in  this  section, 
since  the  dry  weather  so  common  here  in  the  season  when 
transplanting  is  done  often  makes  the  operation  unsuccessful. 
Undoubtedly  one  of  the  reasons  why  transplanted  plants 
sometimes  give  better  results  than  seedlings,  allowed  to  grow 
where  the  seed  is  sown,  is  that  they  are  allowed  more  room  to 
develop  in.  but  if  seedlings  that  are  not  moved  are  given  the 
proper  room  to  develop  they  are  just  as  good  and  generally 
far  superior  to  those  that  are  transplanted.  Transplanting, 
as  a  rule,  is  an  injury  to  plants,  and  yet  it  is  a  necessary 
operation  in  the  growing  of  some  of  our  most  valuable 
vegetables. 


Figure  15.— A  box  of  young  lettuce  plants  after  being  transplanted  from 
the  seed  box.  These  plants  may  be  moved  to  the  open  ground  or  to  hotbeds 
or  cold  frames  as  soon  as  they  crowd  one  another.  This  is  a  convenient 
way  to  grow  plants  in  dwelling  houses  and  in  front  of  windows.  This 
style  of  box  is  often  referred  to  as  a  "flat." 

Success    in   transplanting    is    dependent  on    a  variety  of 

conditions.     In  moist  weather  the  setting  of  plants  in  the  open 

ground  is  a  very  simple  operation,  and  any  one  can  succeed  with 


TRANSPLANTING. 


45 


it  without  much  effort,  but  during- dry  weather  the  gardener's 
skill  is  taxed  to  the  utmost  to  move  plants  successfully.  One 
of  the  most  important  elements  for  success  in  transplanting 
is  a  supply  of  first-class  stocky  plants  that  have  not  been 
crowded  in  the  seed  bed.  Such  plants  make  success  reason- 
ably certain.  A  most  important  requirement  in  any  case  is 
that  the  soil  be  moist,  and  not  wet  and  sticky.  If  it  is  very 
dry.    it   must   be  watered,  or  failure  will  be  a  sure  result. 

Shortening  the  Tops  of  Plants.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  shorten 
the  tops  of  cabbage,  celery,  cauliflower  and  similar  plants 
when  they  are  to  be  moved.  This  may  be  done  by  twisting  or 
cutting  off  a  third  or  even  one-half  of  the  tops.     If  the  plants 


Figure  16.— 1.— Cabbage  plant  with  long  stem  set  deep.  2.— Cabbage  plant 
with  top  twisted  off  before  planting.  3.— Cabbage  plant  wrapped  in 
manilla  paper  to  protect  from  cut  worms. 

have  excessively  long  roots,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  shorten  them 
enough  to  permit  of  their  being  handled  easily. 

The  work  of  digging  the  plants  should  be  done  carefully 


46 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


and  every  precaution  taken  to  get  good  roots.  If  the  seed  bed  is 
very  dry,  the  soil  should  be  thoroughly  wet  before  digging,  so 
that  the  sm#ll  roots  will  not  be  broken  in  separating  the 
plants.  The  best  time  of  day  for  transplanting  is  generally 
after  4  p.m..  as  after  that  time  the  moisture  in  the  air  increases 
rapidly,  and  the  plants  have  the  cool  night  in  which  to  recover 
before  being  subjected  to  the  intense  rays  of  the  sun.  Of 
course,  if  the  weather  is  cloudy,  the  plants  may  be  set  out  at 
any  time  of  the  day.  If  a  little  shade  can  be  provided  for  the 
newly  set  plants,  so  much  the  better.  This  may  consist  of 
boxes,  boards  slightly  raised  from  the  ground,  shingles,  in- 
verted flower  pots,  paper  bags,  a  handful  of  green  grass, 
strawberry  boxes  or  similar  material  that  will  protect  the 
plants  from  the  fierce  rays  of  the  sun. 


■v*. 


Figure  17.— Tomato  plants  grown  in  a  compartment  box  to  facilitate  trans- 
planting. Such  boxes  can  be  bought  for  a  very  low  price  and  are  very 
convenient  aids  for  transplanting  many  kinds  of  plants.  They  are 
especially  desirable  when  plants  are  to  be  sold  at  retail. 

Firming  the  soil  about  the  roots  is  fully  as  important  as 
firming  the  soil  over  the  seeds  and  for  the  same  reasons. 
It  should  be  so  firmly  and  closely  packed  that  the  plants  can- 
not be  pulled  up  without  considerable  effort.      The   drier  the 


TRANSPLANTING. 


47 


soil,  the  greater  the  necessity  for  packing-  it  firmly  about  the 
roots.  If  the  soil  is  wet  and  inclined  to  pack  hard,  it  should 
receive  only  moderate  pressure  until  somewhat  dried  out. 
The  firming  is  generally  done  by  pressing  with  a  dibber  or 
the  ball  of  the  foot  against  the  soil  on  one  side  of  the  roots  of 
the  plant.  When  the  transplanting  is  finished,  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  give  the  plants  a  good  hoeing  at  once,  drawing- 
a  little  loose,  dry  soil  around  them  to  act  as  a  mulch 
and  prevent  evaporation.  The  holes  for  the  plants  are  gener- 
ally made  with  a  dibber  (Fig.  10 
or  10a).  A  spade  is  often  used 
for  this  purpose,  such  plants 
as  small  onions,  are  most  con- 
veniently set  in  small  furrows 
made  with  a  wheel  hoe.  In  ev- 
ery case,  however,  the  plants 
should  be  set  a  little  deeper  than 
they  grew  in  the  seed  bed,  and  in 
the  case 
of  spind- 
ling toma- 
to, cab- 
bage and 
some  oth- 
er plants, 
it  is  a  good 
plan  to 
bend  the 
stems  and  I 
bury  quite 

Figure  18.— Transplanting  aided  by  the  Balbridge  transplanter:  which  takes 
up  a  ball  of  earth  with  each  plant.  The  illustration  shows  a  box  of 
strawberry  plants  just  taken  up  and  ready  for  planting  out.  In  planting 
out  the  holes  are  made  with  the  same  implement.  There  are  several 
other  similar  implements  for  the  same  purpose. 

a  large  part  of  them  in  the  soil,  as  shown  in  figure  16. 


> 


Mtea 


Tomato  cans  are  very  convenient  substitutes  for  flower  pots 
when  plants  are  grown  for  transplanting.  The  cover  on 
the  end  opened  may  be  melted  off  and  a  half  inch  hole  made  in 
the  bottom  for  drainage.  Another  way  to  use  them  is  to  melt 
all  the  joints  and  use  the  body  of  the  can  by  tying  it  together 


48 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


with  a  piece  of  wire.  Thus  prepared  the  tins  may  be  set  in 
the  hotbed  or  cold  frame  and  filled  with  earth,  into  which  the 
seed  or  the    plants  may  be  placed.      When  the  time  comes  for 


. . . 


Figure  19.— Use  of  tomato  cans  as  an  aid  in  transplanting.  A  box  of  plants 
in  the  cans,  ready  for  removal  to  the  field  and  one  can  opened,  showing 
the  ball  of  roots.  The  cans  are  held  together  bva  piece  of  wire  twisted 
around  them. 

for  planting-  into  the  open  ground,  the  tins   with  the  plants  in 

them  may  be  lifted   with  a  trowel  and  placed  in  boxes  to  be 

carried  to  the  field  where  the  plants  are  easily  placed  in  the 

ground.     The  tins  may  be  set  around  the  plants  on  top  of  the 

ground  to  protect  them  from  the  sun  and  wind. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

FARMER'S   KITCHEN   GARDEN. 

When  properly  conducted,  the  kitchen  garden  should  be  the 
most  profitable  part  of  the  farm.  Toooften  its  confined  area  and 
the  laborious  methods  employed  in  its  management  make  the 
labor  of  cultivating  it  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  returns. 
Instead  of  confining  the  garden  to  a  small  area,  it  is  better 
to  enclose  one  or  two  acres  of  good  rich  land  with  a  good 
windbreak  of  some  kind,  so  that  it  will  make  a  garden  plot 
twice  as  long  as  wide.  Leave  a  headland  in  grass  about 
fifteen  feet  wide  all  around,  as  good  crops  cannot  be  grown 
next  to  a  windbreak.  The  rows  should  run  the  long  way  of 
the  land,  somewhat  as  shown  in  figure  20.  If  the  garden  is 
surrounded  by  a  fence,  it  will  be  found  a  good  plan  to  have 
the  part  at  the  ends  of  the  rows  made  of  movable  panels,  so  they 
may  be  removed  when  cultivating. 

The  arrangement  of  a  vegetable  garden  in  the  manner  shown 
in  figure  20  makes  it  large  enough  for  practicing  something 
of  a  rotation  of  crops  in  it  and  permits  of  hand  labor  being  re- 
duced to  a  minimum  by  the  use  of  horse  implements.  The 
land  should  be  cultivated  flat,  except  for  a  few  special 
crops  such  as  celery.  There  is  no  advantage  to  be  gained 
from  hilling  uparoundplants,and  it  isalaborious  process  that 
can  be  dispensed  with  as  well  as  not.  When  irrigation  can- 
not be  practiced,  it  is  important  to  have  such  crops  as  celery 
and  late  cabbage  on  moist  soil,  but  for  general  gardening  pur- 
poses a  porous  clay  soil,  overlaid  with  a  sandy  loam,  is  best, 
although  a  good  clay  loam  will  do  very  well  when  properly 
cultivated.  Light  sandy  soils,  especially  those  that  are  under- 
laid with  sand  or  gravel, are  too  liable  to  injury  from  drought 
to  be  reliable  for  general  garden  operations.  The  garden 
should  be  near  the  house,  so  as  to  be  easily  accessible. 

In  planning  the  garden  it  is  important  to  put  all  the  per- 
ennial crops  together,    and  so   arrange  the  other  crops  that 


50 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


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Figure  20.— Plan  for  farmers'  kitchen  garden. 


FARMERS'  KITCHEN  GARDEN.  51 

those  that  grow  best  in  rows  of  the  same  width  will  come  to- 
g-ether. The  accompanying-  figure  shows  one  plan,  by  which 
this  may  be  done;  it  also  provides  for  a  part  of  the  garden 
to  be  kept  in  clover,  to  be  broken  up  about  once  in  three  or 
four  years  and  used  for  vegetables  in  alternation  with  that 
shown  laid  out  in  rows,  which  part  should  then  be  seeded 
down  for  a  while.  This  is  a  very  desirable  feature  of  this 
plan. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

SEEDS     AND     SEED    GROWING.      DEVELOPMENT    OF   VARIETIES. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  have  seed  of  good  pedigree 
in  order  to  grow  good  crops.  No  single  factor  that  enters 
into  production  of  a  crop  is  more  important.  Where  many 
kinds  of  plants  are  grown,  it  is  better  and  cheaper,  as  a  rule, 
to  depend  on  some  careful  seed  grower  for  seeds  than  to  go 
to  the  expense  of  raising  them,  although  it  may  be  best  to 
raise  a  few  of  the  more  important  kinds  of  seeds,  for  which 
our  conditions  are  best  adapted.  When  one  makes  a  specialty 
of  crops  like  onions,  cabbage  and  some  other  vegetables, 
it  is  often  advantageous  to  raise  the  seed  oneself,  since  one 
then  knows  their  purity  and  pedigree  and  takes  no  risk 
about  it. 

Some  seeds  can  be  grown  to  better  advantage  in  one 
section  than  in  another*.  For  instance,  cauliflower  seed  can- 
not be  raised  profitably  over  most  of  the  United  States,  but 
near  Puget  Sound  and  in  a  few  other  places  in  this  country 
and  in  southern  Europe  it  can  be  raised  to  good  advantage. 
Most  of  the  cauliflower  seed  used  in  this  country  is  still  im- 
ported from  southern  Europe.  As  a  general  rule,  however, 
the  seeds  raised  in  one's  own  vicinity,  or  in  a  similar  climate 
elsewhere,  are  best  to  plant  if  they  are  properly  selected.  Ex- 
perience seems  to  show  that  seed  grown  in  cold  climates 
generally  produces  an  earlier  maturing  crop  than  seed  grown 
in  warm  sections. 

Testing  Seeds. — No  matter  how  carefully  our  seeds  may 
have  been  raised  or  who  the  person  is  from  whom  we  receive 
them,  it  may  save  much  trouble  and  loss  to  test  them  before 
sowing.  This  may  be  done  by  sowing  them  in  a  box  of  fine 
loam,  kept  at  a  temperature  of  from  60  to  70  degrees.  The 
temperature  of  an  ordinary  living  room  is  about  right.  For 
this  purpose  use  a  box  about  four  inches  deep  and  the  size  of 
a  soap  box,  sow  the  seed  in  shallow  drills  and  cover  the  box 


SEEDS  AND  SEED  SOWING. 


53 


with  glass,  to  prevent  rapid  evaporation.  One  hundred  seed 
should  be  counted  out  just  as  they  come,  and  be  sown.  By  count- 
ing- the  seedling's,  the  per  cent  of  germination  of  the  seed  is 
easily  obtained. 

A  Simple  Germinating  Apparatus. — A  simple  method  of  testing- 
seeds  is  as  follows: — Take  two  plates,  and  in  one  ■  of  them 
place  a  folded  cloth,  woolen  flannel  is  preferable  since  it 
must  remain  moist  for  a  long  time,  but  any  cloth  will  do. 
The  cloth  should  be  free  from  dye  stuffs  since  they  may  con- 
tain injurious  chemicals.  Wet  the  cloth,  pressingout  the  sur- 
plus water  leaving  it  very  damp,  but  not  soaked.     Place  the 


Figure  21.— Simple  device  for  seed  testing  (open), 
counted  seeds  between  its  folds  and  mark  plainly  with  a 
pencil  on  a  piece  of  paper  the  number  of  seeds  put  in  and  the 
date.  Then  cover  with  the  second  plate,  as  shown  in  figure 
22.  Plenty  of  air  will  get  in  between  the  plates,  and  the 
upper  one  will  prevent  evaporation.  The  temperature  should 
average  as  recommended.  Common  newspaper  or  wrapping 
paper  may  take  the  place  of  the  cloth,  but  requires  much  more 
attention. 


Figure  22.— Simple  device  for  seed  testing   (closed). 
Sometimes    seeds    that    barely    germinate    under    the    ex- 


54  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

ceptionally  good  conditions  that  exist  in  a  sitting  room  or 
greenhouse  will  'not  grow  readily  when  planted  outdoors,  so 
that  in  testing  seeds  it  is  very  important  to  note  the  vigor  of 
the  sprouts.  Seeds  that  start  strongly  in  the  house  may  be 
safely  planted  at  their  proper  season  outdoors,  while  those 
that  start  only  weak  sprouts  in-doors  may  be  worthless  for 
outdoor  planting.  An  instance  bearing  on  this  occurred  a 
few  years  ago  at  Chester,  N.  Y.,  where  an  onion  grower 
planted  seed  three  years  old  which  germinated  fairly  well  in 
his  conservatory  but  failed  to  grow  outdoors,  while  fresher 
onion  seed  sown  at  the  same  time  grew  perfectly. 

The  Curing  and  Storing  of  Seeds  are  matters  of  much  import- 
ance and  greatly  influence  their  germinating  qualities.  Seeds 
should  be  thoroughly  ventilated  while  being  cured,  or  they 
mould  or  sprout,  either  of  which  seriously  injures  their  value. 
Seeds  of  some  kinds  will  sprout  several  times  before  entirely 
losing  their  germinating  qualities,  but  they  lose  much  of  their 
vitality  by  so  doing.  Moulded  seeds  may  sometimes  retain 
their  vitality  unimpaired,  but  if  to  be  offered  for  sale  their 
dark  color  is  objectionable,  for  it  must  always  be  regarded  as 
an  evidence  of  neglect  in  curing.  It  is  important  also  to  pre- 
vent seeds,  especially  tropical  seeds,  as  those  of  melons, 
squashes,  corn,  cucumbers,  tomatoes,  etc.,  from  being  frozen 
until  fully  dry.  The  freezing  of  green  or  half  cured  seeds  in- 
jures their  vitality  and  often  destroys  it.  This  is  well  known 
in  the  case  of  corn  where  the  seed  taken  from  an  ordinary 
crib  in  the  spring  often  fails  to  grow, while  seed  corn  from  the 
same  crop  properly  cured  in  a  dry  warm  room  grows  perfectly. 

Seeds  are  much  influenced  by  the  temperature  and 
humidity  of  the  place  in  which  they  are  kept.  A  dry  place  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  successfully  keeping  garden  seeds, 
and  if  warm  so  much  the  better  for  tropical  seeds.  The  tem- 
perature and  conditions  of  a  good  living  room  are  almost 
ideal  for  storing  all  kinds  of  garden  seeds.  Most  if  not  all 
our  garden  seeds  are  unimpaired  by  even  severe  freezing 
while  perfectly  dry.  In  a  moist  place  garden  seeds  lose  their 
germinating  qualities  much  quicker  than  when  they  are  kept 
dry. 

Changing  Seed. — There  are  locations  so  well  adapted  to  cer- 
tain particular  crops, that  some  varieties  seem  to  lose  nothing 


SEEDS  AND  SEED  SOWING.  55 

of  their  pristine  vigor  and  productiveness  when  grown  there 
for  years,  or  they  may  be  greatly  improved  in  such  locations: 
but,  as  a  rule,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  change  seed  occasionally, 
and  it  often  results  in  increased  productiveness.  This  seems 
to  be  a  fact,  while  the  reason  of  it  is  not  always  so  plain. 

Stock  Seed.— When  seed  raising  is  a  large  business,  it  is 
out  of  the  question  to  have  all  the  specimens  planted  perfect  in 
every  respect,  but  nothing  should  be  planted  except  it  is  near  the 
desired  type.  Each  year  enough  perfect  specimens,  or  those  close- 
ly approximating  perfection,  should  be  selected  to  raise  the  seed 
for  the  grower's  use  the  following  season.  In  this  way  the 
quality  of  the  grower's  seed  stock  is  kept  up,  and  without 
such  care  the  stock  of  seed  is  liable  to  seriously  deteriorate. 
Seed  so  selected  and  improved  from  year  to  year  is  termed 
stock  seed. 

Seedsmen's  Specialties.— Most  seed  growers  and  dealers  have 
some  few  lines  of  seed  in  which  they  are  especially  interested. 
These  they  select  with  more  than  ordinary  care.  It  is  always 
desirable  to  order  seed  of  our  specialties  from  those  making 
a  specialty  of  our  favorite  kinds,  unless  we  raise  them  our- 
selves. To  secure  the  best,  it  is  well  to  order  early  in  the 
season. 

Seedsmen's  Humbugs. — Almost  without  exception  every  dealer 
in  seeds  sells  humbugs,  that  is,  worthless  or  very  inferior 
varieties.  If  he  is  honest,  he  offers  them  simply  because  his 
customers  want  them.  If  he  is  dishonest,  he  is  very  apt  to 
misrepresent  and  praise  them  in  order  to  make  customers  pay 
a  big  profit. 

Novelties. — It  is  desirable  to  test  novelties  in  seeds  and 
plants,  but  this  should  be  done  cautiously  and,  as  a  rule,  it  is 
best  not  to  be  in  too  great  haste  to  try  new  things.  It  is  the 
general  experience  of  growers,  that  not  more  than  one  in  ten 
of  the  novelties  in  seeds,  fruits  and  plants  are  any  better  than 
those  generally  cultivated.  In  the  history  of  the  Minnesota 
Experiment  Station,  the  average  of  desirable' seed  novelties 
has  been  even  less  than  this. 

THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF   VARIETIES. 

There  are  laws  that  govern  heredity  and  descent  in  plants  as 
well   as  in    animals,    and    by    intelligent    selection    and    breeding 


56  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

one  may  greatly  improve  or  even  originate  new  varieties  of  veget- 
ables as  well  as  of  other  plants.  The  seed  stock  of  desir- 
able new  or  improved  varieties  may  often  be  sold  at  pro- 
fitable prices,  or  by  retaining-  the  sole  ownership  of  such 
new  or  improved  kinds  one  may  perhaps  raise  crops  that 
have  highly  esteemed  qualities  as  to  size,  shape,  color, 
flavor,  hardiness,  season  of  maturity  or  other  features, and  so 
command  an  advanced  price.  Thus  a  grower  may  sometimes 
be  well  rewarded  for  his  care  and  attention  in  improving-  his 
specialties,  but  careful  study  and  persistence  is  necessary  to 
success,  and  few  persons  are  keen  enough  in  their  powers  of 
observation,  to  succeed  in  this  line  of  work. 

There  is  a  constant  tendency  for  cultivated  plants  to  vary  wide- 
ly from  the  original  form,  though  this  feature  may  not  manifest  it- 
self for  many  generations  after  cultivation  has  commenced.  The 
higher  the  state  of  cultivation  to  which  a  plant  is  subjected, 
the  greater  are  the  chances  of  its  producing  new  features. 
When  a  plant  once  commences  to  vary  from  the  original  type, 
the  changes  ofttimes  come  very  rapidly,  and  the  possibilities  are 
endless.  Thus  from  a  wild  plant  two  or  more  feet  hi^h  with 
only  a  few  leaves  has  been  developed  (1)  the  modern  cab- 
bage of  (a)  the  wrinkled,  (b)  the  smooth,  (c)  the  red-leaved, 
and  (d)  the  many  ornamental  kinds;  (2)  Brussels  sprouts, 
with  numerous  small  cabbage  heads  on  a  stem  two  or  more 
feet  high:  (3)  cauliflowers,  in  which  the  inflorescence  becomes 
thick  and  fleshy :  (4)  the  various  kinds  of  Kale:  and  (5)  cow 
cabbage,  which  in  the  Jersey  Islands  has  been  known  to  grow 
to  the  height  of  sixteen  feet  and  strong  enough  for  rafters  of 
cow  sheds.  The  many  varieties  of  garden  and  field  plants  are 
conclusive  evidence  of  the  variation  of  plants  under  culti- 
vation. 

All  of  our  valuable  garden  vegetables  are  the  result  of  almost 
endless  care  in  selection  and  in  a  few  cases  of  artificial  as  well  as 
chance  crossing.  They  must  be  regarded  as  artificial  productions 
having  a  constant  tendency  to  revert  to  the  wild  state,  which  we  must 
constantly  try  to  overcome  if  their  desirable  qucdities  are  to  be 
maintained. 

It  ts  necessary  for  the  successful  breeding  of  plants  to  have  in 
view  a  well  defined  purpose  and  in  selecting  seed  not  to  vary  the  ideal 
standard  of  excellence  sought,  for  such  variation  increases  the  diffi- 
culty of  fixing  desired  characteristics. 


SEEDS  AND  SEED  SOWING.  57 

It  is  found  to  be  quite  a  general  law  obtaining-  among 
plants,  that  th  qualities  of  tht  parent  an  much  mon  potent  and 
thus  mon  liable  to  be  transmitted  than  sorm  especially  desirabli 
qualities  of  a  few  individual  fi-uits,  which  may  occur  on  a  plant 
otherwist  defective.  For  instance,  Living-stone,  who  has  done 
much  to  improve  the  tomato,  selected  seed  for  fifteen  years 
from  the  best  tomatoes  that  approached  most  nearly  in  size 
and  other  qualities  the  best  modern  tomatoes  without  noting 
much  improvement.  He  says,  "I  was  then  no  nearer  the  goal 
than  when  I  started.  Such  stock  seed  would  reproduce  every 
trace  of  their  ancestry,  viz.:  thin  fleshed,  rough,  undesirable 
fruits."  It  finally  occurred  to  him  to  select  from  the  special 
merits  of  the  plants  as  a  whole,  instead  of  from  the  best  fruits 
without  regard  to  the  plants  on  which  they  grew.  Improve- 
ment then  came  easily  and  rapidly,  and  in  afewyears  he  obtained 
the  Parag'on.  Acme  and  Perfection  varieties,  which  were  vastly 
superior  to  and  have  entirely  supplanted  the  old  varieties  of 
tomatoes.  Again,  in  selecting  seed  corn  it  is  more  important 
to  save  seed  from  plants  having  ears  approaching  the  desired 
size  of  cob,  kernel,  etc..  rather  than  to  select  the  largest  ker- 
nels alone  or  to  select  from  ears  after  they  have  been  pulled. 

Where  it  is  desired  to  hasten  tht  ripening  period  of  a  variety, 
only  tin  seed  from  itu  earliest  maturing  specimens  from  a  plant 
having  tin  largest  number  of  early  specimens  should  be  planted. 
In  order  to  fix  latt  maturing  qualities,  seed  should  bt  saved  from 
lati  maturing  fruits  on  plants  possessing  thesi  features  to  the 
gri  atest  extent. 

Tin  continued  selection  of  any  seed  from  inferior  specimens 
results  in  the  fixing  of  the  poorer  qualities  even  mon  surely 
than  tin  selection  of  seed  from  the  better  plants  results 
in  improvement.  By  injudicious  selection  the  cabbage  has 
sometimes  been  changed  from  a  biennial  to  an  annual 
producing  no  head  at  all  but  going  to  seed  the  first  year. 
When  cabbage  has  been  grown  for  several  generations  from 
stem  sprouts  and  not  from  head  sprouts,  the  effect  has  some- 
times been  to  lengthen  the  stem  at  the  expense  of  the  head, 
until  the  seed  stock  becomes  run  out  entirely  and  is  in  effect 
no  longer  true  modern  cabbage  seed,  since  it  has  partly  revert- 
ed to  the  original  type.  An  instance  of  this  occurred  in  a 
neighborhood   in  Nova  Scotia  where,  for  the  sake  of  economy 


58  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

for  a  number  of  years  cabbage  seed  was  grown  by  cutting  off 
the  heads  and  planting  out  the  stumps  only,  until  the  stems 
became  nearly  two  feet  long  and  the  heads  not  much  bigger 
than  twice  the  size  of  a  man's  fist. 

The  practice  of  miring  the  seed  from  plants  remaining  in  the 
garden  after  the  best  specimens  have  been  gathered  for  home  use,  as 
often  happens,  is  a  very  poor  one.  Under  such  treatment  there 
is  a  very  general  tendency  for  the  stock  to  degenerate.  Where 
seed  is  to  be  saved  in  a  mixed  garden,  a  few  hills  of  plants 
should  be  allowed  to  go  to  seed  for  this  special  purpose,  with- 
out being  picked  at  all.  It  is  very  important  to  save  seed 
from  well  ripened  fruits.  Very  immature  seeds  will  often 
grow,  but  they  give  a  wreak  though,  perhaps,  very  early 
maturing  plant  and  are  very  liable  to  disease.  According 
to  Prof.  Arthur,  it  is  not  the  slightly  unripe  seeds  that  give  a 
noticeable  increase  inearliness,  but  very  unripe  seeds  gathered 
from  fruit  (tomatoes  )  scarcely  of  full  size  and  still  very  green. 
Such  seeds  weigh  scarcely  more  than  two-thirds  as  much  as 
those  fully  ripe:  they  grow  readily  but  lack  constitutional 
vigor.  Professor  E.  S.  Goff  has  made  a  great  number  of  experi- 
ments along  this  line  and  remarks  that  the  increase  in  earli- 
ness  in  tomatoes  following  the  use  of  very  immature  seeds,  "is 
accompanied  by  a  marked  decrease  in  the  vigor  of  the  plant 
and  in  the  size,  firmness  and  keeping  quality  of  the  fruit. ,r 

A  few  years  of  careful  observation  and  experience  in  fol- 
lowing out  these  principles  in  the  breeding  of  plants,  with  a 
special  object  in  view,  wrill  convince  the  most  skeptical  of  the 
wonderful  power  which  man  possesses  to  adapt  plants  to 
his  needs. 

Crossing  and  Self-pollination  of  Plants.— The  flowers  of  plants 
are  said  to  be  either  self-pollenized  or  crossed.  By  self-pol- 
lination is  meant  the  fertilization  of  the  female  organ  (pistil) 
by  the  male  element  ( pollen )  of  the  same  flower  or.  in  some 
cases  of  the  same  plant  but  different  flowers  as  in  corn  and 
squashes,  which  have  two  kinds  of  flowers.  By  crossing,  or 
cross-pollination,  is  meant  the  union  of  different  plants  in  the 
seed.  The  crossing  of  different  varieties  generally  gives  in- 
creased vigor  in  the  progeny,  but  its  effect  is  variable  and 
may  result  in  the  loss  as  well  as  the  increase  of  other  desir- 
able qualities.     Most  of  our  cultivated  plants  are  crossed  by 


SEEDS  AND  SEED  SOWING.  59 

natural  processes.  The  crossing  of  different  seed  stocks  of 
the  same  varieties  of  plants  is  generally  a  great  advantage, 
since  it  generally  results  in  increased  vigor  without  loss  of 
desirable  qualities.  Seeds  from  self-pollenized  flowers  are 
not  as  productive  as  crossed  flowers.  Darwin  found  that  cab- 
bage plants  from  seed  that  had  been  crossed  produced  nearly 
three  times  the  weight  produced  by  self-pollenized  seeds.  In 
the  case  of  Indian  corn,  experiments  made  at  the  Illinois  Ex- 
periment Station  show  that  while  cross-fertilization  is  not 
necessary,  it  is  very  desirable.  Corn  grown  from  crossed 
seed  in  nearly  all  cases  was  clearly  increased  in  size  as  the 
result  of  crossing.  "Plants  grown  from  self-fertilized  seed  corn 
were  in  most  cases  notably  inferior  in  size  and  vigor  to  the 
plants  grown  from  hand  crossed  seed  or  from  seed  simply 
selected  which  was  probably  naturally  crossed. "  '  "One  plot 
from  self-fertilized  seed  had  nearly  half  the  stalks  deformed 
in  such  a  manner  that  instead  of  standing  up  straight  they 
turned  off  at  a  right  angle  at  or  neai-  the  point  where  the  ear 
was  produced,  thus  showing  the  tassel  on  a  level  with  the  ear. 
Many  of  the  tassels  were  very  deficient  in  pollen."  In  an- 
other plot  from  self-fertilized  seed,  nearly  all  the  tassels  were 
abortive.  All  the  plots  from  self-fertilized  seed  produced  a 
greater  proportion  of  barren  stalks  or  poorly  filled  ears  than 
plants  of  the  same  varieties  from  crossed  seed  or  from  seed 
naturally  fertilized.  On  the  other  hand  the  flowers  of  barley 
and  wheat  are  so  constructed  that  their  flowers  seldom  open 
and,  hence,  are  naturally  self-fertilized,  but  even  here  arti- 
ficial crossing  results  in  increased  productiveness. 

The  effect  of  cross-pollination  is  not  always  apparent  in 
the  progeny  of  the  first  generation,  but  is  frequently  plainly  to 
be  seen  in  the  crossed  fruit  or  seed  the  first  year.  However, 
differences  may  appear  as  the  result  of  the  cross  the  second  or 
later  generation,  which  were  not  suspected.  When  corn  is 
crossed,  it  is  generally  believed  that  the  effect  of  the  cross  is 
apparent  the  first  year  in  the  grain,  but  careful  experiments 
plainly  show  that  flint  corn  grains  which  do  not  show  a  trace 
of  the  admixture  of  sweet  corn  the  first  generation,  may  pro- 
duce ears  the  second  generation  showing  some  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  sweet  corn.  The  same  truth  undoubtedly  holds 
as  good  in  the  case  of  other  plants. 


60  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

Mixing  Varieties. — Practically,  varieties  of  plants  can  be 
mixed  only  in  the  blossom:  and  in  order  to  mix,  the  different 
varieties  must  both  be  in  blossom  at  the  same  time.  On  this 
account  potatoes  do  not  mix  in  the  hill.  The  varieties  of 
some  species  of  plants  are  much  inclined  to  mix.  Any  two 
varieties  of  corn, melons,  squashes  and  cucumbers  are  especial- 
ly liable  to  be  crossed  if  growing  in  the  same  field  and  in 
flower  at  the  same  time.  However,  two  kinds  of  corn, of  beans 
and  of  other  plants  may  be  grown  on  adjoining  pieces  of 
land  without  danger  of  mixing,  providing  that  they  are  not  in 
flower  at  the  same  time:  e.  g.,  Cory  and  Evergreen  sweet  corn 
if  planted  at  the  same  time  may  be  grown  for  seed  close  to- 
gether and  will  not  mix.  since  the  Cory  would  be  entirely  out 
of  flower  when  the  Evergreen  came  into  flower. 

Distance  between  Varieties. — The  distance  which  should  inter- 
vene between  varieties  liable  to  mix  is  variously  estimated  by 
different  growers,  and  is  influenced  by  various  conditions. 
The  pollen  of  corn,  grasses  and  many  other  plants  is  moved 
by  the  wind;  and  when  different  varieties  of  corn  flowering  at 
the  same  time  are  planted  for  seed  there  will  be  more  liability 
of  their  mixing  when  the  pieces  of  land  on  which  they  grow 
are  in  line  of  the  prevailing  winds  than  when  east  and  west  of 
each  other.  If  a  grove  or  hill  intervene  between  varieties,  it 
is  a  good  barrier  to  crossing.  When  varieties  of  each  plant 
are  not  on  a  line  of  prevailing  winds,  they  are  reasonably  free 
from  mixing  if  500  feet  apart:  otherwise,  at  least  1000  feet 
should  intervene. 

Such  plants  as  melons,  cucumbers,  squashes  and  onions., 
and  most  other  plants  with  conspicuous  flowers,  are  pollenized 
by  insects  to  whose  bodies  the  pollen  becomes  attached  and  is 
carried  from  one  flower  to  another.  This  pollen  is  not  light  and 
powdery  as  in  corn  and  many  other  plants  but  is  rather  heavy.  It 
is  obvious  then  that  the  direction  of  the  wind  has  little  ef- 
fect in  crossing  such  plants.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  plants  pollenized  by  insects  should  have  at 
least  1000  feet  between  them  to  prevent  mixing,  which  will  often 
occur  to  some  extent  even  with  these  precautions.  The  greatest 
care  should  be  taken  to  keep  stock  seed  from  being  mixed. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

GLASS   STRUCTURES. 

Glass  structures  are  becoming-  more  numerous  each  sea- 
son for  the  purpose  of  raising  vegetables  and  flowers,  and  are 
destined  to  continue  to  increase  in  use  as  the  wealth  of  the 
country  increases.  They  are  referred  to  here  under  the  head 
of  cold  frames,  hotbeds  and  greenhouses. 

Cold  Frames. — The  term  cold  frame  is  applied  to  frames 
covered  with  glass  and  used  to  protect  plants  in  winter,  or 
for  forwarding  them  without  any  heat  other  than  that  derived 
from  the   sun.       It   is  the   simplest  form  of    glass   structure. 


Figure  23.— Movable  frame  which  may  be  stored  out  of  the  way  in  the  summer. 
It  is  generally  made  of  one  inch  boards  and  is  very  convenient  for  those 
using  only  a  few  sashes. 

They  are  generally  made  4|  or  6  feet  wide  and  of  an  ylength 
or  depth  which  convenience  may  suggest.  The  sashes  for 
covering  them  are  generally  4x4!  feet  or  3x6  feet  in  size.  For 
location,  select  a  place  near  to  water  and  the  house,  prefer- 
ably sloping  to  the  south  and  well  protected  on  the  north,  and 
west  by  buildings,  trees,  etc.  If  there  is  no  protection  on  the 
north  and  west,  a  tight  board  fence  six  feet  high  will  answer 
the  purpose  and  is  very  desirable.  In  making  the  bed  the 
following  are  requisites:  enough  2x12  in.  plank  to  go  the 
length  of  the  north  side  and  the  same  length  of  2x6  in.  plank 
for  the  south  side  of  the  bed  and  2x4  in.  stakes,  two  or  more 
feet  long,  for  each  corner   and   to    support  the  sides  firmly  in 


62  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

place,  and  sash  and  shutters  to  cover  the  frame  made.  The 
planks  should  be  made  into  a  box  with  its  width  equal  to  the 
length  of  the  sash  and  extending  east  and  west.  See  figure 
24.  Those  forming  the  north  side  should  be  six  inches  above 
ground,  and  the  top  edge  of  the  plank  forming  the  southerly 
side  should  be  five  inches  lower.  Thus  when  the  sash  is  put 
on.  it  will  slope  five  inches  to  the  south,  as  shown  in  figure. 
The  planks  should  be  nailed  to  the  stakes,  and  end  pieces  put 
in.  The  earth  inside  the  frame  should  be  thrown  out  to  the 
bottom  of  the  planks  and  used  to  bank  up  the  outside  of  the 
frame.  If  plants  are  to  be  grown  in  the  soil  of  the  frame,  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  it  is-  of  the  best  quality.  The 
frame  is  now  ready  for  the  sash  and  plants.  More  durable 
and  expensive  frames  are  sometimes  made  of  brick  or  stone 
for  the  sides,  and  sometimes  four-inch  strips  are  put  on 
wherever  two  of  the  sashes  come  together,  to  serve  as  a  sup- 
port. Frames  are  also,  frequently,  made  several  feet  deep, 
but  the  same  general  rules  apply  in  the  building  of  them 
as  are  described. 

Cold  frames  are  used  in  the  middle  states  to  winter  over 
cabbage  and  lettuce  plants,  which  are  started  in  September 
and  planted  in  them  when  grown  to  a  good  transplanting  size, 
but  in  severe  climates  this   is  not   a  safe  method. 

Cold  frames  are  used  here  in  the  spring  for  forwarding 
lettuce  and  other  early  crops,  and  still  later  for  melons,  cu- 
cumbers and  other  tropical  plants.  They  are  also  used  to  ex- 
tend the  season  of  growth  during  the  autumn  months  and  to 
protect  some  of  the  half-hardy  plants,  such  as  spinach,  during 
the  winter.  They  require  ventilation  in  mild  weather 
during  the  day,  and  on  cold  nights  should  be  covered 
with  mats  and  shutters  or  shutters  alone.  They  are  very  in- 
expensive and  very  useful  in  the  garden,  but  where  the 
materials  for  making  them  can  be  had  at  low  cost  hotbeds 
are  much  more  satisfactory  for  forcing  vegetables. 

Hotbeds. — Hotbeds  are  made  very  much  like  cold  frames, 
only  they  are  warmed  by  fermenting  horse  manure  or  other 
material  placed  under  the  soil,  and  hence  they  must  be  dug 
out  deep  enough  to  make  room  for  it.  The  amount  of  manure 
necessary  to  properly  warm  a  hotbed  will  depend  very  much 
on  the  season  of  the  year  at  which  the  bed  is  made  up  and  the 


GLASS  STRUCTURES. 


63 


crop  to  be  grown.  In  the  colder  northern  states,  when  the 
hotbeds  are  made  up  at  the  beginning-  of  March,  from  24  to  30 
inches  of   manure  should    be  used,  and  covered    with    six    or- 


So^W 


Figure  24.— Cross  section  of  hotbed, 
eight  inches  of  rich  soil.  Later  in  the  season  18  inches  or 
even  one  foot  of  manure  may  be  sufficient.  In  favorable  loca- 
tions, hotbeds  may  be  run  all  winter  for  growing  lettuce, 
radishes,  etc.  This  is  not  often  practicable  in  the  northern 
states,  and  cheap  greenhouses  are  generally  used  during 
winter  and  hotbeds  only  during  the  spring. 

The  hotbed  frames  for  early  spring-  use,  should  be  prepared 
for  the  manure  in  the  autumn.  The  soil  for  spring  use  should 
generally  be  put  into  them,  covered  with  leaves,  and  the 
shutters  and  mats  put  on  to  keep  out  the  frost.  If  this  has 
not  been  done,  the  sash  may  be  put  on  in  the  early  spring-, 
which  will  partially  thaw  out  the  soil  in  the  bed;  or,  by  an- 
other method, more  manure  may  be  used,  putting-  it  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  frozen  land,  and  the  frame  may  be  set  on  top  of  it. 
In  the  latter  case  the  manure  should  extend  at  least  one  foot  be- 
yond the  sides  of  the  frame  and  be  one-half  again  as  deep  as. 
when  placed  in  a  pit,  and  the  frame  should  be  banked  up 
with  manure.  It  is  quite  a  common  practice  to  make 
movable  frames  of  one  inch  boards  large  enough  for  three 
or  four  sash,  as  shown  in  figure  23.  These  are  kept  from 
year  to  year,  being  set  on  top  of  the  manure  and  the 
earth  put  into  them. 

Hotbed  Manure. — The  material  generally  used  for  heating 
hotbeds  is  fresh  horse  manure,  but  sheep  manure  and 
even  spent  hops  may  serve  the  purpose.     Of  animal  manures, 


•64  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

-that  from  horses  fed  on  highly  nitrogenous  foods,  i.  e.,  on 
grain  foods,  will  heat  best.  The  preparation  of  the  manure 
is  very  simple.  It  should  be  gathered  together  in  a  pile, 
as  fresh  as  may  be,  when  if  moist  it  will  generally  heat, 
no  matter  how  cold  the  weather.  If  it  does  not  start  to 
heat  readily,  a  few  buckets  of  hot  water  poured  into  the 
center  of  the  pile  will  start  it,  if-  of  the  right  material. 
When  it  gets  nicely  started,  the  pile  should  be  turned 
-over,  throwing  the  outside  manure  into  the  center  of 
the  pile  and  breaking  up  all  the  lumps.  In  a  few  days  it  will 
heat  again  and  will  then  be  ready  to  go  into  the  frames,  but 
do  not  put  it  into  the  frames  until  it  is  heating  thoroughly. 
Clear  horse  manure  heats  too  violently  and  should  be  mixed 
with  about  its  bulk  of  leaves  or  fine  straw.  The  leaves  used 
to  keep  frost  out  of  the  frames  during  winter  now  come  in  to 
advantage  for  mixing  with  the  manure.  Of  course,  if  the 
manure  gathered  has  considerable  straw  in  it  this  admixture 
of  leaves  is  not  necessary. 

The  way  of  putting  manure  in  the  frames  calls  for  some 
little  care.  It  should  be  broken  up  very  fine,  mixed  with 
leaves  or  other  material  and  spread  as  evenly  as  possible 
over  the  whole  bed, taking  special  pains  to  have  the  frame  well 
filled  in  the  center,  as  it  settles  there  much  quicker  than  at  the 
sides.  As  the  manure  is  put  in,  it  should  be  packed  down 
quite  firmly  by  the  feet,  taking  great  care  to  have  it 
evenly  packed  throughout.  Now  put  on  the  sash  and  cover 
until  it  heats  well  all  through  the  bed.  If  it  does  not 
start  to  heating  quickly  enough,  a  few  buckets  of  hot  water 
should  be  added.  When  well  warmed  through,  level  off  the 
top  of  the  manure  and  cover  with  soil  six  inches  deep.  This 
soil  should  have  been  prepared  in  the  autumn  and  protected 
from  frost  by  mulching  or  put  under  the  leaves  in  the  bed : 
but  if  this  provision  has  not  been  made  the  soil  may  be 
searched  for  in  cellars,  under  strawstacks,  in  the  woods  under 
leaves  or  elsewhere,  or  the  soil  may  be  thawred  out  by  the  use  of 
sash  and  manure.  As  this  latter  process  is  tedious  all  ex- 
perienced growers  prepare  their  soil  in  autumn. 

After  the  soil  is  put  on.  it  should  be  left  until  it  is  warmed 
through  and  the  weed  seeds  near  the  surface  have  germinated. 
Then  remove  the  sashes  and  make  the  surface  fine  with  a  rake  and 


GLASS  STRUCTURES. 


65 


the  bed  is  ready  to  receive  the  seed.  A  hotbed  made  up  in 
this  way  in  March  will  continue  to  give  out  heat  five  or  six 
weeks,  after  which  it  will  be  practically  a  cold  frame, but  since 
after  the  middle  of  April  the  sun  is  pretty  high  and  the  bed 
well  warmed,  the  plants  will  continue  to  nourish. 

Hotbeds  require  more  water  than  cold  frames  and  more 
care  in  the  matter  of  ventilation.  They  should  not  be  started 
until  a  short  time  before  one  is  ready  to  use  them.  If  seed- 
lings are  to  be  raised  in  them  to  be  later  on  transplanted, 
start  only  enough  sashes  to  grow  the  seedlings  and  do  not 
start  other  hotbeds  until  the  seedlings  are  big  enough  to  be 
removed  into  them. 

For  the  ordinary  farm  garden  four  or    five  hctbed  sashes 
is  a  great  plenty,  and  no  more  should  be  started  than  can  be 


Figure  25.— Fire  hot-bed. 

properly  attended  to.  These  should  be  started  about  the  first 
of  March.  This  number  will  be  found  sufficient  for  all  the 
early  radishes,  onions,  lettuce,  cress  and  other  greens  for  the 
table  in  early  spring,  and  for  raising  tomatoes,  cabbage  and 
other  vegetable  plants  to  be  set  out  later  on  in  the  open 
ground. 

Shutters  and  mats  are  used  for  covering  the  sash  of  hot- 
beds and  cold  frames  at  night  to  prevent  too  rapid  radiation 
of  the  heat. 


66  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

Fire  Hotbeds.— Horse  manure  will  undoubtedly  continue  to 
be  used  for  warming-  hotbeds,  no  matter  how  much  greenhouse 
construction  or  means  for  artificial  heating  may  be  cheapened, 
but  there  are  some  situations  where  it  may  be  more  economi- 
cal and  convenient  to  use  a  forcing  bed,  or  what  is  sometimes 
called  a  fire  hotbed.  This  closely  resembles  a  hotbed  in  out- 
ward appearance,  but  instead  of  being  heated  with  manure  a 

..---■**"""'***-....  nue  is    used  to  take  its 

,.---''  "* — .^  place,  and  it  is  warmed 

by  the  smoke  of  wood, 
coal  or  other  fuel.  In 
this  case  a  pit  should 
be  excavated,  fur- 
nished with  permanent 
walls  and  a  good 
strong  floor  to  support 
the    soil  in    which  the 


Figure  26.— Cross  section  of  fire  hotbed. 


crops  grow.  Ten  inch  terra  cotta  or  glazed  drain  tile  is  a  cheap 
material  for  the  flue,  or  brick  may  be  used  for  this  purpose. 
The  furnace  and  the  first  eight  or  ten  feet  of  the  flue  should 
be  made  of  common  hard  brick  and  have  a  lining  of  fire  brick 
set  in  fire  clay.  If  the  pit  is  not  over  thirty  feet  long  the  fire 
box  should  be  at  one  end  and  the  chimney  at  the  other  ;  but 
if  much  longer  it  is  better  to  have  the  chimney  over  the  fire- 
box and  to  run  the  tile  to  the  end  of  the  house  and  return 
back  to  the  chimney.  This  chimney  should  have  dampers  so 
arranged  that  when  kindling  the  fire  a  direct  draft  may  be  had 
into  it, and  after  starting  the  fire  the  heat  and  smoke  can  then 
be  forced  to  go  through  the  whole  length  of  the  pipe.  This 
arrangement  is  desirable  on  account  of  the  difficulty  in  getting 
a  draft  through  a  long,  flat,  cold  flue.  In  laying  such  a  flue.it 
should  rise  slightly  throughout  its  whole  length  from  firebox 
to  chimney.  The  furnace  should  vary  in  size  according  to 
whether  coal  or  wood  is  to  be  used  for  fuel.  For  wood  the 
furnace  should  be  18  inches  wide  and  arched  over  the  required 
length,  generally  4*  feet,  with  cast  iron  grate  bars  set  in  the 
walls.  There  should  be  an  ash  pit  of  suitable  size,  and  both 
it  and  the  firebox  should  have  suitable  iron  doors  set  in 
brick.  The  illustrations  herewith  show  the  general  arrange- 
ment of  such  a  house.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  build  a  low  shed 
for  fuel  on  the  end  where  the  furnace  is  located. 


GLASS  STRUCTURES. 


67 


The  heat  from  a  flue  is  very  dry,  and  much  more  water  is 
required  when  hotbeds  are  heated  in  this  way  than  when  manure 
is  used  as  the  source  of  heat. 

A  Greenhouse  Hotbed.  A  greenhouse  may  be  heated  by 
manure  or  a  combination  of  manure  and  some  other  way  of 
heating-.  In  the  following-  lines  and  illustrations  is  given  the 
plan  of  what  may  be  called  a  greenhouse  hotbed  which  has 
been  in  very  successful  operation  at  the  Minnesota  Agricultural 
School.  The  description  is  from  an  article  on  the  subject  by 
R.  S.  Mackintosh,  of  the  Division  of  Horticulture. 

"There  are  disadvantages  in  hotbeds,  as,  for  instance,  the 
transplanting, ventilating-,  watering,  etc.,  must  be  done  from  the 
outside  even  in  severe  weather,  while  in  a  house  like  the  one 


— i 


CROUffO  tl/TE. 


^ 


Hfflft,  ■tt7 


y. 


--IH 

aev/mon. 


nnn. 

Figure  27.— Plan  and  elevation  of  hotbed  greenhouse. 

shown  in  the  figure  these  operations  can  be  carried  on  easily. 
The  house  is  simply  a  hotbed  built  so  as  to  allow  a  person 
to  g-o  inside  to  do  all  the  work  of  caring  for  the  plants. 
Figure  27  shows  the  general  plan  of  the  house.     The  size  is 


68  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

12x24  feet.  The  roof  consists  of  sixteen  sashes,  each  3x6  feet. 
Any  number  of  sashes  may  be  used  according-  to  the  size  of 
the  house.  To  receive  the  most  sunlight, the  house  should  ex- 
tend north  and  south:     the   light  will  then  strike  both  sides 


Sc<vle»in:$t. 


Figure  28.— Sectional  view  of  hotbed  greenhouse. 
of  the  plants.  The  south  end  of  the  house  is  glazed  from  the 
surface  of  the  bed  up  to  the  rafters.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
excavate  the  full  depth  of  four  feet,  because  the  earth  that  is 
thrown  out  can  be  used  to  bank  up  with  on  either  side,  making 
a  terrace  as  steep  or  as  sloping  as  desired. 

The  heat  is  furnished  by  two  to  three  feet  of  well  prepared 
manure  in  each  bed,  over  which  is  placed  five  inches  of  soil. 
The  sashes  are  fastened  to  the  rafters  by  means  of  screws 
which  prevents  their  being  lifted  by  heavy  winds  and  at  the 
same  time  allows  them  to  be  removed  very  easily,  when  desired, 
to  replace  soil  or  manure.  Ventilation  is  provided  for  by 
fastening  one  or  more  sashes  with  hinges  at  the  bottom,  so 
they  may  be  raised  as  high  as  necessary  at  the  top. 

Many  kinds  of  building  material  may  be  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  wall,  beds,  etc.  Lumber  is  used  in  the  build- 
ing shown  in  the  figure  but  brick  or  stone  would  be  more  dur- 
able in  the  end,  though  it  would  add  considerably  to  the  first 
cost.     The  posts  are  three  feet  apart,    extend    about  two    feet 


GLASS  STRUCTURES. 


69 


below  the  planks  and  are  braced.  The  inside  rows  of  posts 
need  not  be  quite  so  strong-  as  the  outside  ones  and  need  not 
be  braced.  When  a  house  is  not  more  than  twenty-four  feet 
long  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  support  the  roof  in  more  than 
one  place.  This  is  done  by  extending-  two  of  the  middle  posts  up 
to  the  rafters. 

In  figure  28  is  shown  a  cross  section  of  this  greenhouse  and 
the  way  the  sashes  and  rafters  are  joined  at  top  and  bottom. 
The  sashes  are  cut  so  as  to  fit  tightly  at  the  top  and  the 
plate  is  bevelled  a  little,  so  as  to  allow  water  to  run  off 
quickly. 

There  are  sixteen  wooden  shutters  for  covering  the 
sashes  on  cold  nights.     These  are   made   the    same   width    as 

the  sashes  but  six 
inches  longer.  One 
cleat  is  put  on  the  up- 
per side  at  the  end, 
and  the  other  on  the 
lower  side  at  the  end. 
When  put  on,  the  up- 
per cleat  is  against 
the  ridge  pole  which 
leaves  the  shutters 
clear  for  the  water  to 
run  off.  They  are 
made  of  second  fencing 
matched  and  dressed. 

In  this  house  there 
is  glass  over  the  path, 
which  is  not  necessary 
in  the  lean-to  plan, 
shown  in  figure  29, 
where  the  sash  is  all  on 
the  south  side  of  the  path.  It  is  important  to  have  crops 
grown  as  close  to  the  glass  as  may  be,  and  this  fact  should 
be  carefully  borne  in  mind.  This  style  of  house  is  suscepti- 
ble of  many  modifications.  It  may  be  used  as  a  lean-to  on 
the  south  side  of  the  dwelling,  where  it  may  receive  a  little 
heat  from  the  house.  Its  limitations  are  about  the  same  as 
those  of  hotbeds.     When  such  a  house  is  intended  for  use  in 


Figure  29  - 
hotbed, 


3         x  i     H "    • 

-Cross  section  of  lean-to  greenhouse 


70  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

winter,  it  might  be  an  advantage  to  so  plan  it  that  the  manure 
from  one-half  could  be  renewed  every  five  or  six  weeks. 

GREENHOUSES. 

Greenhouse  is  a  term  applied  rather  loosely  to  glass 
structures  of  the  larger  sort  having  some  special  heating  ap- 
paratus, and  used  for  growing  plants.  The  more  expensive 
structures  are  not  referred  to  here  but  only  the  simpler  affairs, 
such  as  are  most  economical  for  use  in  the  market  and  home 
garden. 

A  very  cheap  and  yet  withal,  serviceable  greenhouse,  is  de- 
scribed in  "'How  to  Make  the  GardenPay"  and  the  publishers 

of  it  have  kindly  con- 
sented to  the  use  of  it 
here.  It  is  called  the 
''Model  Forcing  Pit." 
Fig.  30  shows  a  cross 
section  of  this  house 
which  is  made  with  a 
valley  in  the  center,  so 
that  in  point  of  fact  it 
Figure  30.-Marketgardners  greenhouses.  ^  two    houses.        The 

total  width  of  both  houses  is  twenty-six  feet.  The  alleys  are 
dug  into  the  ground  in  each  house  eighteen  inches  wide 
and  eighteen  inches  deep  and  boarded  up  on  each  side. 
The  beds  on  each  side  are  four  feet  wide  and  the  at- 
tendant can  cultivatethemwhen  standingin  thealley.  The  peak 
of  thegreenhouse  is  only  four  and  a  half  feet  above  the  ground 
level  or  six  feet  from  the  bottom  of  the  alleys.  The  sides  are  only 
one  foot  above  the  ground  and  are  made  of  plank  nailed  to 
cedar  posts  and  banked  upon  the  outside  with  horse  manure 
in  winter.  The  roof  is  covered  with  movable  sashes  7  or  11 
feet  long  and  of  any  convenient  width.  Common  hotbed  sash 
(3x6  feet)  might  be  made  to  answer  but  sash  having  larger 
glass  than  is  generally  put  in  them,  is  best.  *  Large  sized  glass 
is  preferable,  12x16  inches  being  a  good  size.  A  light  frame- 
work for  the  sash  to  rest  on,  similar  in  construction  to  that 
shown  in  figure  of  a  greenhouse  hotbed  is  necessary,  and  the 
sashes  should  be  screwed  down  and  ventilation  secured  in  the 
same  way  as  there  explained.  In  the  center  at  B,  where  the 
two  roof  sections  meet,  the  sashes  rest  on  a  plank  twelve  inches 


GLASS  STRUCTURES. 


71 

to    carry    oft" 


to  form    a   gutter 
The  center  planks  rest  on  two 


wide  cut  out  I  by  8  inches, 
water  as  shown  in  figure  31. 
rows  of  2x3 inch  posts, 
two  and  a  half  feet 
long  and  twelve  inch- 
es above  the  beds: 
these  posts  are  four 
feet  apart  in  each  row. 
The  total  length  of  the 
houses  here  described 
may  vary  according  to 
circumstances.  The 
house  from  which  this 
plan  is  taken  was    100 

fppt  lontr  Tt  was  heat-  Figure  31.— Valley  in  market  gardeners  green- 
leet  long,  it  was,  neat       house  showing  the  way  tne  sasnbar=  are  at- 

ed  with  a  second  hand      tached  to  the  plate. 

tubular  steam  boiler  and  at  an  outside  temperature  of  zero, has 
to  carry  about  five  pounds  pressure  to  maintain  a  temperature 
of  65  or  70  degrees.  Two  inch  pipes  conduct  the  heat  from 
the  boiler,  one  line  of  pipe  running  up  each  side  of  the  house 
and  both  returning  through  the  center  at  B,  back  to  the  boiler. 
The  furnace  room  is  an  excavation  10x12  feet  and  six  feet  deep, 
at  the  northerly  end  of  the  house,  built  with  a  good  wall  and 
roof.  The  length  of  pipe  required  is  450  feet.  In  the  extreme 
northern  states  more  pipe  radiating  surface  would  perhaps  be 
required  for  best  results.  The  entire  cost  of  material  for  a 
structure  of  these  dimensions,  boiler  and  pipes  included, 
amounts  to  about  $150.  The  cost  of  steam  fitting  will  have  to 
be  added  to  this,  but  the  rest  of  the  work  can  be  done  by  any 
man  of  ordinary  intelligence;  Mr.  Greiner,  whose  description 
has  been  largely  followed  in  the  above,  says  that  he  likes  the 
pipes  all  above  ground  as  here  recommended  for  forcing 
vegetables,  but  if  wanted  for  starting  seedlings  and  for  gener- 
al propagating  purposes  the  pipe  bad  better  be  placed  ten  to 
twelve  inches  under  the  surface,  and  encased  in  an  ordinary 
three  inch  drain  tile  as  shown  at  D  figure  30.  In  sections  where 
fuel  is  high  priced  the  beds  might  be  partially  heated  with 
manure. 

Figure  32  shows  a  cross  section  of  a  lean-to  house  that  is 
easily  adapted  to  most  locations,  but  especially  suited  to  side- 
hills.     It  is  twenty  feet  wide  and  may  be  made  of  any  length 


72 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


desired.  It  should  have  a  boiler  room  on  one  end  or  at  the 
back  side,  as  is  most  convenient.  It  should,  of  course,  extend 
east  and  west  so  that  the  slope  will  be  entirely  to  the  south  or 
southeast.  The  walls  are  made  of  cedar  posts  tightly  boarded 
up  on  both  sides.  Thealleys  are  two  feet  wide  and  planked  on 
each  side.  The  roof  is  shown  made  of  permanent  sash  bars 
but  these  might  be  made  of  movable  sash  as  recommended  for 
the  model  forcing  pit.  One  ventilator  is  at  the  top  of  the  roof 
and  another  is  in  the  side  wall.  Two  purlins  extendingthe  length 
of  the  house  are  supported  by  small  gas  pipe  posts.  The 
northerly  bench  is  four  feet  wide,  raised    three  feet  above  the 


Figure  32.— Cross  section  of  lean-to  greenhouse, 
alley  and  is  filled  with  six  inches  of  soil  or  it  may  be  used  for 
seed  boxes.  The  center  bench  is  eight  feet  wide  and  may  be 
solid  or  raised.  The  southerly  bench  is  shown  filled  with 
stable  manure  and  is  practically  a  hotbed.  The  same  treat- 
ment may  also  be  given  the  center  bench.  But  where  the  plan 
is  followed  of  making  up  a  part  of  the  benches  with  manure,  it 
is  well  to  have  some  or  all  of  the  roof  glazed  with  movable 
sash,  to  facilitate  the  work  of  putting  in  and  taking  out  the 
manure.  The  use  of  stable  manure  to  supplement  the  heating 
apparatus,  is  a  practice  that  may  be  economically  followed  in 
1  ocations  where  coal  is  high  priced  and  stable  manure  abund- 
a  nt.  The  heating  arrangement  could  be  either  steam  or  hot 
water  with  the  flow  pipes  high  up  near  the  roof,  as  shown  at  A 
and  B  and  the  returns  at  C  and  D. 


GLASS  STRUCTURES.  73 

Methods  of  Heating.— There  are  practically  three  methods  of 
heating  greenhouses,  viz. :  by  smoke  flue,  by  hot  water  and  by 
steam.  Heating  by  smoke  flue  is  described  under  the  head  of 
fire  hotbeds.  It  has  the  merit  of  being  easily  and  cheaply 
constructed  by  any  one  having  some  little  ingenuity.  Even 
when  made  on  the  best  principles  it  is  probably  more  wasteful 
of  fuel  than  a  good  steam  or  hot  water  apparatus,  but  where 
inferior  fuel  can  be  cheaply  obtained  a  smoke  flue  may  often 
be  used  to  advantage.  As  for  the  relative  merits  of  hot  water 
and  steam  apparatus  for  heating,  it  is  probably  enough  to  say 
that  each  system  has  its  earnest  advocates  and  that  very  often 
there  is  little  advantage  in  favor  of  either.  Where  a  very 
large  heating  plant  must  be  used,  making  a  nightwatchman 
necessary,  it  is  best  to  plan  for  steam  heating  at  low  pressure. 
For  small  greenhouses,  perhaps  a  hot  water  plant  is  best.  It 
costs  more  to  put  in  the  hot  water  apparatus  because  it  re- 
quires more  radiating  surface,  since  the  pipes  are  not  heated  as 
hot  as  when  steam  is  used.  Some  exclusive  merits  are  perhaps 
justly  claimed  for  a  combination  of  hot  water  and  steam,  in 
which  system  hot  water  is  used  for  heating  in  mild  weather,  while 
in  severe  weather  the  water  is  lowered  in  the  boiler,  a  regulator 
is  put  on  and  the  pipes  are  filled  with  steam.  It  is  probable 
that  an  ordinary  tubular  steam  boiler  is  the  most  practical 
kind  to  use,  either  for  a  hot  water  or  steam  heating  apparatus. 

The  amount  of  radiating  surface  necessary  for  heating  a 
greenhouse,  will  depend  on  the  temperature  to  be  maintained 
and  the  location  of  the  house.  In  a  general  way,  one  should 
figure  that  glass  houses  will  require  at  least  four  times  as 
much  radiating  surface,  as  an  ordinary  dwelling  house  similar- 
ly situated  and  enclosing  the  same  number  of  cubic  feet  of 
space.  In  estimating  the  amount  of  radiating  surface  neces- 
sary it  is  always  advisable  to  consult  some  practical  person 
acquainted  with  such  problems. 


CHAPTER  X. 

MISCELLANEOUS    MATTERS     CONNECTED     WITH    THE    BUILDING    AND 
CARE  OF  HOTBEDS  AND   GREENHOUSES. 

The  sash  for  hotbeds  or  cold  frames  should  be  about  3x6 
feet  or  4x4i  feet  in  size;  the  glass  free  from  blisters,  of  double 
strength  and  lapped  not  more  than  one-fourth  of  an  inch.  If 
lapped  more  than  this,  water  is  liable  to  freeze  in  it  and  crack 
it.  It  should  be  bedded  in  putty  and  nailed  in,  not  puttied  in. 
Common  window  sash  might  be  used  for  this  purpose  in  a 
small  way,  and  temporarily,  but  it  is  not  strong  enough  to 
last  well,  and  besides,  as  the  sash  bars  run  both  ways  and 
project  beyond  the  glass,  the  rain  water  cannot  run  off  but 
soaks  the  wood  and  leaks  through  into  the  hotbed,  making  it 
too  wet  in  places.  Also,  the  cross  bars  in  common  window 
sash  make  a  needless  extra  shadow  that  is  objectionable. 
Regular  hotbed  sash  is  made  with  sash  bars  running  only  one 
way  so  that  the  water  falling  on  it  runs  off  easily  and  quickly. 
Hotbed  sash  can  be  bought  of  sash  manufacturers  or  may  be 
made  at  home  by  any  person  having  a  fair  amount  of  mechan- 
ical ingenuity. 

Shutters  are  desirable  for  covering  the  glass  of  hotbeds  and 
cold  frames.  They  are  generally  made  of  second  fencing, 
matched  and  dressed,  and  in  size  of  the  same  width  as  the 
sash  but  about  six  inches  longer,  with  a  six-inch  cleat  on  each 
end. 

The  Mats  are  often  made  of  straw,  but  cloth  or  burlap 
mats  are  sometimes  used.  Straw  mats  are  probably  as  good 
as  any  kind  and  are  very  easily  made  as  follows:  Make  a 
frame  of  2x4  inch  lumber  the  size  of  the  mats  desired,  four 
feet  wide  and  one  foot  longer  than  the  sash  is  a  convenient 
size.  Stand  this  frame  up  against  a  wall  and  tightly  stretch 
four  or  five  tarred  strings  eight  to  ten  inches  apart  from  top 
to  bottom,  so  as  to  evenly  divide  the  four  feet  of  width.  Have 
as  many  balls  of  lighter  tarred  strings  as  there  are  strings 
fastened  to  the  frame,  and  fasten  one  to  each  upright  string 


HOTBEDS  AND  GREENHOUSES  75 

at  the  bottom.  Commence  at  the  lower  end  by  laying  a  wisp 
of  straw,  cut  ends  out,  on  the  string-  at  the  bottom  and  fasten 
it  there  by  twisting  each  of  the  smaller  strings  once  around 
the  straw  and  the  upright  strings.  Next  put  on  another  wisp 
of  straw  and  so  continue  until  the  frame  is  covered.  Mats 
thus  made  are  an  admirable  protection  against  frost,  and  far 
better  than  shutters  alone.  The  advantage  of  having  shutters 
in  addition  to  the  mats  is  that  they  keep  the  mats  from  getting 
wet,  which  makes  them  so  heavy  that  they  break  easily  in 
handling  or  they  freeze  solid  and  do  not  lie  close  or  are 
clumsy  to  handle.  Rye  strawr  is  best  for  mats  and  it  is  most 
tough  and  durable  when  cut  partially  green.  It  is  often 
threshed  by  hand  so  that  the  straw  can  be  kept  straight,  but  it 
may  be  cleaned  by  a  threshing  machine  by  holding  the  bundle 
and  only  putting  the  heads  into  the  machine. 

Ventilation  and  Temperature  are  subjects  of  greatest  import- 
ance in  growing  plants  under  glass.  The  various  classes  of 
plants  require  different  degrees  of  heat  to  reach  their  best  de- 
velopment. For  instance:  lettuce,  radish,  cress  and  similar 
plants  grow  best  at  a  lowT  temperature,  say  about  75  degrees 
in  the  day  and  40  to  50  degrees  at  night,  wrhile  tomatoes,  egg- 
plants, cucumbers  and  melons,  grow  best  at  a  higher  tempera- 
ture, of  85  to  90  degrees  in  the  day  and  60  degrees  at  night.  If  the 
former  plants  are  kept  at  a  higher  temperature  than  that  given 
they  are  liable  to  become  diseased  and  infested  writh  insects. 
This  is  especially  true  of  lettuce.  On  the  other  hand  if  the 
high  temperature  plants  are  kept  much  cooler  they  become 
sickly  and  weak,  although  tomato  plants  will  grow  in  quite 
cool  temperature.  In  admitting  air  to  glass  structures  care 
should  be  taken  that  the  wind  does  not  blow  in  on  the 
plants.  This  is  generally  best  accomplished  in  hotbeds 
and  frames  by  blocking  up  the  sash  at  the  ends  or  sides  with 
notched  pieces  of  wood. 

The  temperature  of  any  place,  unless  otherwise  specified,  is 
the  temperature  there  of  a  thermometer  in  the  shade.  A 
thermometer  with  the  full  sunlight  shining  on  it,  will  record 
about  fifteen  degrees  higher  than  in  the  shade,  which  is  a 
point  always  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  ventilating. 

In  the  weather  of  early  spring  when  the  sun  is  getting 
high,  the  middle  of  the  days  will  be  very  warm  and  the  nights 


76  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

still  quite  cold  and  frosty.  It  is  then  that  the  beginner  often 
makes  the  mistake  of  leaving  the  sashes  of  his  hotbeds  open 
late  in  the  afternoon,  and  the  beds  cool  off  more  than  is  de- 
sirable. At  this  season  of  the  year  but  little  ventilation  is 
necessary  and  frames  and  greenhouses  should  be  shut  up 
quite  early  in  the  afternoon,  and  the  covering  put  on  to  retain 
the  heat  as  soon  as  the  sun  is  low.  In  the  warm  weather  of 
later  spring,  the  sash  of  the  hotbeds  and  frames  may  be  re- 
moved in  the  day  and  kept  on  only  at  night.  No  exact  rules 
can  be  laid  down  for  ventilating,  but  it  is  quite  a  simple 
matter  to  learn,  if  one  is  observing  and  uses  constant  vigi- 
lance. Many  persons  just  beginning  to  use  greenhouses  and 
hotbeds  fail  to  get  best  results  from  them,  because  they  neglect 
the  matter  of  ventilation.  On  cloudy  mornings  it  may  not  be 
needed,  but  if  the  sun  comes  through  the  clouds  it  may  warm 
the  house,  or  the  beds  in  a  very  short  time,  so  that  when  they 
are  examined  the  whole  crop  has  been  injured  by  the  heat. 
This  is  a  most  common  cause  of  failure  by  amateurs  in  charge 
of  greenhouses  and  hotbeds. 

In  nature,  the  night  temperature  in  which  plants  grow 
averages  from  fifteen  to  twenty  degrees  below  that  of  the  day, 
and  it  has  been  found  in  practice  that  when  this  condition  is 
reversed  the  plants  do  not  do  well.  This,  of  course,  can  be 
easily  avoided  by  a  little  forethought.  It  is  a  bad  plan,  gener- 
ally speaking,  to  ventilate  much  in  cold  weather  when  the 
leaves  are  wet.  On  this  account  it  is  best  to  water  early  in 
the  day,  so  that  the  leaves  may  dry  off  before  much  ventilation 
is  required. 

Watering.  Plants  that  are  growing  slowly  do  not  need 
much  water,  while  those  that  are  growing  vigorously  need  a 
great  deal  of  it.  Growing  plants  need  water  whenever  they 
are  dry.  In  bright  warm  weather  a  rapid  growing  crop  in 
hotbed  or  cold  frame  will  need  watering  every  day,  while  in 
cloudy,  moist  weather  perhaps  no  water  will  be  needed  for  a 
week.  In  fact,  watering  in  cloudy  weather  seems  to  encourage 
disease.  When  applying  water  see  that  the  soil  is  wet  as  far 
down  as  the  roots  extend.  It  is  only  the  beginner  who  just 
wets  the  surface  soil  and  thinks  the  plants  sufficiently  watered. 
If  plants  are  wilting  for  want  of  water  in  the  soil,  give  it  to 
them  no  matter  what  the  time  of  day,  but  it  is  always  a  great 


HOTBEDS  AND  GREENHOUSES.  77 

advantage  in  such  cases  to  shade  as  well  as  water  them,  if  the 
sun  is  shining-.  If  a  long  continued  spell  of  cloudy  weather  is 
followed  by  a  period  of  bright  hot  sunshine,  it  is  not  uncom- 
mon to  see  plants  wilting  that  have  plenty  of  water  in  the  soil 
surrounding  them.  In  such  a  case  it  may  be  desirable  to 
shade  them  somewhat  in  the  middle  of  the  day  until  they  get 
used  to  the  sunlight.  In  cold  weather  it  is  a  poor  plan  to 
water  most  of  our  plants  at  night,  since  the  water  will  cool  off 
the  air  and  the  plants  may  be  checked  in  growth,  but  in  hot 
weather  the  reverse  is  true  and  plants  seem  to  get  more  bene- 
fit from  a  good  soaking  in  the  evening,  when  they  can  have  all 
night  to  take  the  water  in,  than  if  it  is  applied  in  the  morning 
and  followed  by  a  hot  sun.  In  watering  hotbeds  in  very  cold 
weather  use  a  fine  rose  sprinkler,  and  if  practicable  tepid 
water.  At  other  seasons  good  lake  or  cistern  water  is  per- 
fectly safe,  and  is  generally  used  by  commercial  growers  at  all 
times  of  the  year.     Avoid  getting  the  soil  water-soaked. 

The  leaves  of  lettuce  and  some  other  plants  are  liable  to 
burn  if  watered  when  the  sun  shines  brightly  on  them  in  warm 
weather. 

The  soil  should  vary  somewhat  in  texture  for  different 
plants  but  all  garden  vegetables  will  flourish  in  much  the 
same  kind  of  soils.  For  use  in  glass  structures  a  light, 
friable,  rich,  sandy  loam  is  best.  This  is  easily  obtained 
when  one  has  been  using  hotbeds,  by  mixing  some  of  the  old 
rottel  manure  which  has  been  used  for  heating  them  the  pre- 
ceding year,  with  any  good  sandy  loam.  If  sandy  loam  can- 
not be  had, clay  loam  may  be  used  and  sand  added  to  the  mix- 
ture. The  manure  from  old  hotbeds  is  especially  good  for 
this  purpose  and  should  form  about  one-third  of  the  bulk  of 
the  soil. 

Boxes.  In  the  case  of  many  plants  having  small  seeds,  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  start  them  in  boxes  instead  of  growing  them 
in  beds,  on  account  of  the  better  care  that  may  thus  be  given 
them.  When  plants  are  to  be  marketed,  it  is  often  best  to  grow 
them  in  the  boxes  in  which  they  are  sold.  Frequently,  too, 
where  plants  are  started  in  the  greenhouse  and  then  moved  to 
the  open  ground,  it  is  most  convenient  to  have  them  in  boxes. 
For  this  purpose  boxes  should  be  about  four  inches  deep  and 
the  size  of  a  soap  or  cracker  box,  which  may  be  cut  down  for 


78  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

the  purpose  and  thus  make  very  cheap  boxes.  Of  course 
where  the  market  demands  a  certain  number  of  plants  in  boxes, 
they  will  have  to  be  made  for  the  purpose.  The  lumber  for 
these  can  be  obtained  at  any  box  factory  and  what  would  be 
otherwise  idle  moments,  may  be  used  in  putting  it  together  at 
trifling  expense. 

Substitutes  for  Glass.  Frames  of  the  same  size  as  hotbed 
sash,  are  sometimes  covered  with  prepared  cloth  or  paper  sub- 
stitutes for  glass.  Such  covering,  however,  will  not  allow  the 
sun's  rays  to  penetrate  it  easily,  nor  is  it  nearly  so  effective 
in  preventing  radiation  of  the  heat  as  glass,  but  under  some 
circumstances  it  may  be  very  desirable.  Sash  thus  covered 
may  often  be  used  to  advantage  in  the  latter  part  of  spring  by 
alternating  it  on  the  frames,  thus  doubling  the  amount  of  sash 
at  small  expense.  Or,  they  may  be  used  in  the  warm  weather 
of  spring,  when  the  sash  needs  to  be  removed  entirely  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  day.  They  are  excellent  for  covering  beds  filled  with 
recently  transplanted  crops,  since  the  light  is  less  intense  and 
evaporation  less  under  them  than  under  glass.  A  convenient 
way  of  forming  these  sashes,  is  to  make  frames  without  sash 
bars,  but  with  one  or  two  wires  stretched  across  them  to  sup- 
port the  cloth  or  paper  covering.  Unbleached  heavy  cotton 
cloth  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  and  the  material  for  dress- 
ing it  should  be  made  of  three  pints  pale  linseed  oil,  one  ounce 
acetate  of  lead  and  four  ounces  white  resin.  Grind  the  acetate 
in  a  little  oil,  then  add  the  resin  and  the  rest  of  the  oil.  Melt 
in  an  iron  kettle  over  a  gentle  fire  until  well  mixed  and  apply 
warm  to  the  cloth.  When  paper  is  used,  it  should  be  what  is 
known  as  manilla  wrapping  paper.  Paste  this  firmly  and 
tightly  on  the  frame  with  fresh  flour  paste.  Dry  in  a  warm 
place.  Then  wipe  the  whole  of  the  paper  with  a  damp- sponge 
to  cause  it  to  stretch  evenly.  Dry  it  again,  and  apply 
boiled  linseed  oil  to  both  sides  of  it  and  dry  in  a  warm  place. 
Use  linseed  oil  that  is  free  from  cotton  seed  oil. 

Shading  the  Glass.  In  the  hot  weather  of  late  spring  or  sum- 
mer, the  sunlight  is  too  warm  for  many  plants  in  the  green- 
house and  it  is  customary  to  shade  them.  The  amount  of 
shade  necessary  will  depend  somewhat  on  circumstances. 
This  shade  may  consist  of  lath  screens  laid  on  the  roof,  but 
more  commonly  it  is  given  by  sprinkling  the  glass,  on  the  out- 


HOTBEDS  AND  GREENHOUSES.  79 

side,  with  a  wash,  made  of  white  lead  and  gasoline,  put  on 
with  a  spray  pump  or  syringe.  This  is  easily  and  cheaply 
done.  It  will  generally  come  off  by  autumn  or  may  be  rubbed 
off  with  a  coarse  rag  or  brush.  Whitewash  is  sometimes  used 
for  this  purpose  but  it  is  too  easily  washed  off  by  heavy  rains 
to  be  desirable. 

SOME  THINGS  TO  REMEMBER.  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  BUILD- 
ING GLASS   HOUSES   FOR  PLANTS. 

(1)  That  all  joints  should  be  made  tight  and  so  far  as 
possible,  so  placed  that  water  will  not  lodge  in  them. 

(2)  There  should  be  just  as  much  room  in  the  beds  and 
as  little  in  the  paths  as  possible. 

(3)  The  glass  should  be  as  close  to  the  beds  as  it  can  be 
and  allow  room  to  manage  the  crops  grown  in  them.  It 
should  be  of  larger  size  for  greenhouses  than  for  hotbeds 
and  in  size  not  smaller  than  10x12  inches,  laid  on  sash  bars 
11  inches  apart.  The  larger  the  glass  the  better.  There  is 
not  so  much  breakage  in  large  as  in  small  glass. 

(4)  A  permanent  water  supply  is  very  desirable. 

(5)  The  glass  should  be  of  good  quality,  free  from  blis- 
ters, waves,  or  other  imperfections  and  what  is  known  as 
double  strength  glass. 

( 6 )  The  heating  arrangements  should  be  sufficient  to  heat 
the  house  easily  in  coldest  weather;  in  other  words,  it  should 
be  more  than  sufficient  to  maintain  the  proper  temperature  if 
crowded. 

( 7  )  Having  the  heating  plant  insufficient  and  then  crowd- 
ing it  in  severe  weather,  injures  the  heating  plant  and  wastes 
fuel,  besides  being  a  trial  of  patience. 

(8)  The  ventilators  should  be  large  and  carefully  fitted 
so  they  will  close  tightly.  When  in  the  roof  they  should  open 
at  the  top.  If  they  open  at  the  bottom  the  moisture  that  con- 
denses on  the  glass,  forms  an  ice  ridge  on  them  in  cold 
weather  and  prevents  their  shutting  tight. 

(9)  The  smaller  the  sash  bars  and  framing  material  in 
the  roof  the  more  sunlight  can  reach  the  crop. 

(10)  The  greanhouse  roof  may  be  covered  with  movable 
sash,  but  it  is  generally  found  most  desirable  to  use  permanent 
sash  bars.     Where  severe  hailstorms  are  frequent  it  might  be 


SO  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

well  to  use  movable  sash  and  take  them  off  in  the  summer,  but 
such  places  are  rare  exceptions.  It  requires  a  very  severe 
hailstorm  to  break  double  strength  glass,  when  at  an  angle,  as 
in  a  roof,  and  practically  there  is  little  risk  from  this  source, 

(11)  In  the  framing  of  greenhouses,  for  instance,  for  pur- 
lines  and  posts,  gas  pipe  can  be  used  to  good  advantage.  It 
is  cheap  and  durable. 

(12)  All  joints  should  be  painted  before  being  put  to- 
gether; all  wood  and  iron  work  should  be  kept   well    painted. 

(13)  In  setting  the  glass  it  should  be  bedded  in  putty  and 
nailed  in,  in  this  way:  paint  the  sash  bars,  then  run  a  thin  coat 
of  putty  along  them;  bed  the  glass  in  it  commencing  at  the 
bottom  of  the  sash  and  lapping  the  glass  one-fourth  of  an 
inch,  on  the  same  plan  that  shingles  are  laid  on  a  roof.  Fas- 
ten the  glass  with  round  three-quarter-inch  brads,  using  four 
to  each  glass;  put  more  liquid  putty  along  the  glass  next 
to  the  sash  bars  and  smooth  it  off  with  a  knife  even  with  the 
glass. 

(14)  Liquid  putty  is  made  by  mixing  one-third  boiled 
linseed  oil,  one-third  white  lead  and  one-third  common  putty. 
If  too  thick,  as  may  be  the  case  in  cold  weather,  add  a  little 
turpentine  or  benzine.  It  may  be  applied  with  a  brush  but  the 
best  way  is  to  put  it  on  with  a  bulb  bought  for  the  purpose: 
or  a  bulb  may  be  madeof  leather,  having  a  large  quill  through 
which  to  squeeze  the  putty.  In  the  latter  case  there  must 
be  a  hole  in  the  side  or  end  by  which  the  bulb  is  filled,  that 
may  be  drawn  together  by  a  string. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO   VEGETABLES. 

In  this  chapter  only  the  more  common  insects  infesting 
garden  vegetables  are  referred  to.  There  are  many  others 
that  almost  yearly  cause  some  damage  to  our  crops  and  which 
in  occasional  years  cause  serious  loss.  But  to  enumerate 
them  would  require  more  space  than  can  be  afforded  here.  In 
dealing  with  them  it  is  well  to  remember  that  biting  insects, 
such  as  potato  beetles  and  blister  beetles,  are  generally  most 
surely  destroyed  bj  arsenical  poisons  such  as  Paris  green 
and  London  purple:  while  sucking  insects,  such  as  plant  lice 
and  chinch  bugs,  are  not  affected  by  them,  but  are  most  readily 
destroyed  by  external  applications,  as  of  tobacco  water  and 
kerosene  emulsion.  We  should  also  remember  that  in  our  war 
upon  injurious  insects  we  have  the  support  of  most  of  the  birds, 
and  of  the  moles  and  shrews,  and  these  should  be  protected 
as  the  friends  of  man  rather  than  be  destroyed,  as  is  too  often 
the  case  among  thoughtless  or  ignorant  people.  Moles  and 
shrews  are  especially  useful  since  they  work  under  ground, 
and  feed  largely  on  various  insects  that  are  difficult  to  destroy 
on  account  of  their  living  in  the  soil.  It  is  perhaps  no  exag- 
geration to  say  that  the  shrew  (often  called  mole)  will  eat  its 
weight  of  insects  each  day.  Insects  are  also  liable  to  attacks 
of  parasites,  or  of  fungous  and  other  diseases,  which  destroy 
them  in  large  numbers  and  often  in  a  very  short  time. 

When  insects  appear  in  small  numbers,  hand  picking  is 
often  a  very  efficient  remedy,  but  when  they  become  very 
abundant  some  other  method  of  destroying  them  must  be  de- 
vised. 

METHODS  OF  DESTROYING  INSECTS. 

Pyrethrum  is  the  insect  powder  of  the  stores.  It  is  made 
by  grinding  the  flowers  of  the  pyretherum  plant,  which  closely 
resembles  the  common  oxeye  daisy.  It  is  not  poisonous  to 
higher  organized  animals,  although  very  destructive  to  many 


82  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

kinds  of  insects.  It  is  otten  adulterated  and  can  seldom  be 
obtained  of  good  quality.  It  also  deteriorates  very  quickly 
when  exposed  to  the  air.  On  these  accounts  it  is  often  very 
difficult  to  get  satisfactory  results  from  that  which  can 
be  obtained  at  the  stores.  When  used  it  should  be  diluted 
with  about  five  times  its  bulk  of  flour,  with  which  it  should  be 
kept  in  a  tight  vessel  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours  before 
using,  in  order  to  get  best  results.  It  should  always  be  kept 
in  an  air-tight  receptacle. 

Paris  green  is  a  refuse  product  composed  of  arsenious  acid 
and  copper  and  is  probably  as  safe  to  use  as  any  arsenic 
compound.  It  is  only  very  slightly  soluble  in  water,  and  is 
used  with  water  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  one  hundred  or 
more  gallons  of  water:  it  is  also  used  when  mixed  with  dry 
substances,  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  fifty  pounds  of  flour  or 
one  hundred  pounds  of  land  plaster,  road  dust  or  sifted  coal 
ashes.  In  using  it  with  water,  the  addition  of  an  equal 
amount  of  milk  of  lime  often  prevents  injury  to  leaves. 

London  purple  is  composed  of  arsenious  acid  and  lime.  It 
is  often  much  cheaper  than  Paris  green  but  varies  more  in  its 
composition.  On  account  of  its  being  lighter  than  Paris 
green  it  does  not  settle  so  quickly  when  put  in  water.  It  is 
used  in  the  same  manner  as  that  substance.  When  used  in 
water  an  equal  amount  of  milk  of  lime  should  always  be  added 
to  neutralize  the  free  acid  which  it  sometimes  contains  in  in- 
jurious quantities,  and  which  may  burn  the  foliage  of  tender 
plants.  London  purple  adheres  to  the  foliage  of  plants  longer 
than  Paris  green. 

Tobacco  is  very  useful  for  destroying  some  kinds  of  insects 
in  the  garden  and  greenhouse.  It  is  especially  effective 
against  plant  lice  and  soft-skinned  hairless  caterpillars. 
Where  smoke  from  it  can  be  confined  around  the  plants,  as  in 
greenhouses  and  hotbeds,  it  is  common  to  use  it  in  a  smudge, 
but  when  thus  used  it  should  be  kept  from  blazing.  It  is  also 
used  in  powdered  form  to  keep  off  some  insects.  A  more 
common  and  effective  way  of  using  it,  is  as  a  decoction  in 
water  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  of  tobacco  stems,  leaves  or 
dust  to  two  gallons  of  water.  The  tobacco  should  be 
boiled  in  the  water  for  twenty  minutes.  When  cold  the  de- 
coction should  be  used  undiluted    with    a    syringe,    spray    or 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  83 

otherwise.  The  decoction  will  not  keep  more  than  a  few 
days  without  spoiling-.  Tobacco  is  an  excellent  fertilizer  as 
well  as  insecticide. 

Kerosene  emulsion  is  a  valuable  insecticide.  It  kills  by  con- 
tact and  is  of  greatest  importance  for  destroying  sucking-  in- 
sects such  as  lice,  scale  insects  and  soft  caterpillars,  but  also 
kills  many  biting-  insects.     It  is  made  as  follows: 

Kerosene  oil,  2  gallons,  67  percent. 

Common  soap,  or 

whale  oil  soap,         £  pound,  33  per  cent. 

Two  pounds  of  soft  soap  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  soap 
recommended. 

Dissolve  the  soap  over  a  brisk  fire  and  add  the  kerosene 
while  the  water  is  hot.  Churn  the  mixture  or  stir  rapidly  un- 
til a  creamlike  emulsion  is  secured.  If  well  made  the  kero- 
sene will  not  separate  but  on  cooling  the  emulsion  will  thicken 
into  a  jelly-like  paste  that  adheres  without  oiliness  to  the 
surface  of  glass.  Soft  water  will  give  far  better  results  than 
hard  water  for  making  kerosene  emulsion,  and  soap  that  is 
made  with  potash  or  soda  lye,  such  as  home  made  soap,  is  far 
better  than  most  of  the  soap  of  the  stores,  as  they  do  not 
emulsify  easily.  For  plant  lice,  dilute  the  emulsion  recom- 
mended with  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  parts  of  cold  water. 
The  strength  of  the  application  will  necessarily  depend  on  the 
insects  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied.  For  such  insects  as 
soft-skinned  caterpillars,  the  emulsion  should  be  diluted  with 
not  more  than  ten  parts  of  water. 

Kerosene  and  milk  emulsion  may  be  made  as  follows: 

Kerosene 2  gallons. 

Sour  milk 1  g-allon. 

These  should  be  thoroughly  churned  together  until  they 
form  an  emulsion,  which  they  do  readily.  It  should  be  used 
the  same  as  thesoap  and,kerosene  emulsion  mentioned.  Sweet 
milk  does  not  emulsify  readily  but  if  a  little  sour  or  even  if 
very  sour,  it  unites  easily  with  the  kerosene.  This  is  the  best 
emulsion  where  the  water  is  very  hard. 

Carbon  bisulphide  is  a  very  inflammable  material  with  a  dis- 
agreeable odor  and  readily  vaporizes.  It  should  be  handled 
with  the  same  precautions  as  gasoline,  which  resembles  it  in 
appearance.     The  fumes  which  it  gives  off  are  very  heavy  and 


84  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

are  poisonous  to  animal  life  when  confined  with  it.  On  ac- 
count of  these  properties  it  is  used  for  killing-  weevils  in  grain 
or  peas,  beans  and  other  seeds,  and  for  killing-  gophers,  mice 
or  other  creatures  in  their  holes.  The  method  of  using-  it  for 
g-rain  weevils,  is  to  fill  a  barrel  or  other  tight  receptacle  near- 
ly full  of  seed,  then  sprinkle  an  ounce  of  the  liquid  for  each 
one  hundred  pounds  of  seed  and  cover  the  vessel  tightly  for 
several  hours.  It  does  not  hurt  the  grain  which  is  just  as 
good  and  looks  as  nice  as  ever  after  being  treated.  The 
germinating  qualities  of  the  seed  are  not  injured  by  this  treat- 
ment. When  used  for  killing  moles,  gophers  and  mice,  the 
material  is  put  on  cotton  or  other  absorbent  and  placed  in 
their  holes,  which  should  be  closed  with  earth  over  the  cotton. 

Catching  Insects  by  Suspended  Light.— By  suspending  a  lantern 
at  night  over  a  tub  of  water  having  its  surface  coated  with 
kerosene,  many  night  flying  insects  can  be  destroyed.  Among 
those  that  can  be  caught  in  this  way  are  cut  worm  moths,  the 
clicking  beetle  (which  is  the  mature  form  of  the  wire  worm), 
and  the  May  beetle  (which  is  the  mature  form  of  the  white 
grub.)  When  these  insects  become  especially  abundant  this 
method  of  catching  them  is  worthy  of  trial.  The  objections  to 
it  are:  (1)  that  it  is  the  larvae  and  not  the  flying  form  of  these 
insects  that  do  serious  injury:  (2)  few  persons  are  so  far 
sighted  that  they  can  be  persuaded  to  attack  insect  enemies 
until  they  are  suffering  from  their  ravages,  and  the  benefits  of 
this  method  will  not  be  felt  until  perhaps  the  following  year. 
(3)  The  observations  of  Dr.  Otto  Lugger  show  that  insects 
have  generally  laid  their  eggs  before  they  fly  much,  and  only 
the  male  insects  of  some  species  fly,  and  the  females  are  nearly 
or  quite  wingless.  It  is  obvious  that  in  some  cases  catching 
the  flying  insects  will  do  little  if  any  good. 

Applications  of  Insecticides.— In  applying  insecticides  it  is 
generally  important  to  begin  their  use  as  soon  as  the  insects 
appear  and  not  wait  until  the  plants  have  been  weakened  and 
set  back  by  their  attacks.  There  are  many  and  various 
machines  for  distributing  insecticides.  The  machine  best 
adapted  to  this  purpose  will  depend  much  on  the  insecticide 
used  and  the  extent  of  the  operations  contemplated.  For  ap- 
plying liquid  compounds  some  of  the  many  forms  of  spray 
pumps  will  be  found  best.     For  the  small  garden  where  there 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS. 


85 


is  a  variety  of  crops  grown,  perhaps  what  is  known  as  knap- 
sack spray  pump  is  as  con- 
venient as  any  general  pur- 
pose machine.  Where  pota- 
toes are  grown  on  a  large 
scale,  some  special  spray 
pump  that  can  be  geared  to 
the  wheels  of  a  wagon  is 
probably  the  best  to  use. 
Where  insecticides  are  used 
in  powder  form  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  scatter  them  on  the 
plants  through  a  coarse  linen 
bag  or  fine  wire  cloth.  When 
such  material  needs  to  be 
ejected  with  force,  a  fan  or 
bellows  may  be  used.  It  is 
always  best  to  use  poisons 
in  a  liquid  form  when  practi- 
cable since  it  is  the  most 
economical  and  effective  me- 
thod of  applying  them.  No 
insecticide  should  ever  be  used 
in  a  large  way,  until  it  has 
been  tried   on    a    small    scale 

Figure  33.— Colorado  potato  beetle  in    to  see  what  its    effect  will  be 
all  stages.  jn  ,  ,     , 

on   the    crop    to    be    treated, 

since  plants  may  be  much  more  susceptible  at  one  time  than 

at  another  to  applications  of  this  nature. 


COMMON  GARDEN  INSECTS  AND  METHODS  OF  DESTROY- 
ING THEM. 

The  Colorado  Potato  Beetle  (Boryphora  decemlineata.)— The 
Colorado  potato  beetle  is  so  common  and  so  well  known  by 
every  farmer  and  gardener  in  this  country  that  it  needs  no  de- 
scription here.  It  came  originally  from  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region  where  it  fed  on  the  native  sandbur  (Solarium  rostratum) 
which  is  close  allied  to  the  potato,  but  when  this  insect  came 
to  know  the  cultivated  potato  it  preferred  it  to  its  original 
food    and  has   since  become   a   very  dangerous  pest   to  this 


86  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

vegetable.  The  orange  colored  eggs,  varying  in  number  from 
a  dozen  to  fifty,  are  generally  laid  on  the  under  side  of  the 
potato  leaf.  They  hatch  in  about  a  week  into  sluggish  larvae 
which  feed  upon  the  leaves,  never  leaving  a  plant  until  all  the 
leaves  are  gone.  They  also  feed  to  some  extent  upon  tomato 
and  egg  plants.  When  fully  developed  the  larva?  descend  to 
the  ground  where  they  pupate  and  emerge  as  perfect  beetles. 
There  are  three  broods  each  season.  The  beetles  winter  over 
in  potato  fields. 

Remedies.  The  number  of  these  pests  varies  greatly  from 
year  to  year.  The  chief  remedies  are  arsenical  poisons  ap- 
plied to  the  foliage.  For  this  purpose  Paris  green  and  Lon- 
don purple  are  commonly  used.  The  method  of  applying  them 
varies  much.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  use  one  pound  of 
Paris  green  to  150  gallons  of  water.  This  must  be  constantly 
agitated  while  in  use  or  the  poison  will  settle  to  the  bottom  of 
the  vessel.  London  purple  may  also  be  applied  in  water,  but 
as  it  varies  somewhat  in  composition  and  is  liable  to  contain 
a  dangerous  amount  of  free  acid,  it  is  safest  to  use  with  it 
an  equal  amount  of  milk  of  lime.  It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  use 
milk  of  lime  with  Paris  green.  Some  experiments  show  that 
about  one  pound  of  lime,  one  pound  London  purple  and  sev- 
enty gallons  of  water,  is  a  safe  and  satisfactory  formula  to  use 
for  this  crop.  When  thus  applied  the  work  may  be  done  with 
a  spraying  machine,  a  watering  pot  or  a  brush  broom.  On  a 
large  scale,  some  kind  of  a  spraying  apparatus  is  necessary. 

These  poisons  may  also  be  safely  applied  when  mixed  with 
one  hundred  times  their  bulk  of  flour,  sifted  ashes  or  road  dust 
or  mixed  with  one  hundred  pounds  of  land  plaster.  When 
thus  used  they  are  easily  applied  by  means  of  a  coarse  linen  bag. 
There  are  a  number  of  proprietory  insecticides  for  the  potato 
beetle  but  they  generally  depend  for  their  success  on  the  arsen- 
ic they  contain.  But  no  matter  what  insecticide  is  applied,  in 
order  to  do  the  most  good  it  should  be  used  as  soon  as  the 
young  larvae  can  be  seen  on  the  leaves. 

The  Imported  and  Native  Cabbage  Worm  {Pieris  sp.).  The  im- 
ported cabbage  worm  resembles  our  native  species  and  both 
of  them  are  very  destructive  to  cabbage,  turnip,  cauliflower 
and  similar  vegetables  and  to  such  flowering  plants  as  mig- 
nonette, stocks  and  nasturtiums.         They  feed  on  the  leaves 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  87 

and  will  often  destroy  the  cabbage  crop  unless  preventive 
measures  are  taken.  The  worms  of  the  imported  species  are 
green  in  color,  while  our  native  species  are  bluish  with  yellow 


Fig.  34.    Imported  Cabbage  Worm,    (a)  Larva3, 
butterfly. 


(b)  Chrysalis,   (c)  Male 


Female. 


stripes.     The  butterflies  of  both  species  are  much  alike.     They 

are  generally  white   with    indefinite   black  marks    above    and 

yellow  or    green   markings 

on  the  underside,  and    are 

commonly  seen  flitting  over 

fields  of  cabbage  or  of  other 

of  its    food   plants   during 

the    day    time.       The   full 

grown  caterpillar  is  about 

an  inch  and    a   half   long. 

The  winter  is  passed  in  the 

chrysalis      stage      hidden 

away    in  sheltered  places    and  from  these  the  adult  butterfly 

emerges  in  the  spring  and  lays  her  eggs  on  the  under    side  of 

of  the  leaves    where  they  hatch  in    about    one  week.     There 

are  several  broods  in  a  season. 

Remedies.  Pyrethrum  powder,  mixed  with  five  times  its  bulk 
of  flour  and  dusted  into  the  cabbage  just  at  night  fall,  is  a  good 
remedy.  The  flour  should  be  mixed  with  the  pyrethrum  over 
night.  In  a  small  way  hand  picking  may  be  successfully  re- 
sorted to.  If  the  worms  are  troublesome  where  cabbage  is 
grown  on  a  large  scale  it  is  customary  to  use  arsenical  poisons 
as  recommended  for  the  potato  bug.     These,  it  is  evident  to  any 


88 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


one,  can  be  safely  applied  before  the  plants  commence  to  head, 
and  recent  careful  trials  and  analyses  of  cabbage  thus  treated 
with  Paris  green,  show  there  is  very  little  danger  in  using  it  at 
any  stage  on  the  plants.  It  is  the  simplest  of  remedies  and 
effective,  yet  not  dangerous.  There  are  parasites  that  attack 
and  kill  the  worms  and  chrysalides,  and  Dr.  Lugger  has 
shown  clearly  that  they  sometimes  may  be  destroyed  very 
rapidly  by  disease,  as  well  as  insect  parasites.  It  is  not  un- 
common to  have  nearly  all  these  worms  die  in  the  latter  part 
of  any  season  from  one  or  both  of  these  causes. 

Cabbage  Plusia  {Plusia  brassicce.) — The  cabbage  plusia  eats 
irregular  holes    in  the    leaves,  and    burrows  into  the  heads  of 


Figure  36.— Snapping-beetle  or  wire  worm  with  larvas. 

the  cabbage.  The  parent  insect  is  a  moth  of  a  dark-gray 
color  distinguished  by  a  silver  mark  on  each  wing.  The  eggs 
are  laid  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves  singly  or  in  clus- 
ters. They  soon  hatch  into  pale  green  translucent  worms, 
marked  with  paler  longitudinal  stripes  on  the  back  and  sides. 
When  full  grown  these  are  about  two  inches  long.  They  re- 
semble span  worms  in  their  mode  of  locomotion,  hence  are 
easily  distinguished  from  the  cabbage  worm.  The  full  grown 
caterpillar  spins  a  cocoon,  generally  on  the  under  side  of  the 
cabbage  leaf,  in  which  it  undergoes  its  changes.  The  insect 
winters  over  in  the  pupal  state.  The  remedies  for  this  pest 
are  the  same  as  for  those  recommended  for  cabbage  worms 
and  it  is  also  subject  to  diseases  and  parasites. 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  89 

Wire  Worms  or  Drill  Worms  (Motor)  —Wire  worms  cause  dam- 
age by  boring  into  potatoes  and  some  seeds  in  the  ground. 
They  are  the  larvae  of  a  snapping  or  clicking  beetles,  so-called 
from  the  ease  with  which,  if  laid  on  their  backs,  they  spring 
into  the  air  with  a  clicking  noise.  The  larvae  are  slender 
wirelike  worms,  having  a  glassy  tough  skin  of  a  yellowish  or 
brownish  color.  The  larval  stage  lasts  for  two  and  possibly 
five  years ;  it  is  therefore  no  small  job  to  clear  a  piece  of  land 
badly  infested  with  this  pest.  Naturally,  wire  worms  live  in 
grass  land  where  the  harm  they  do  is  not  apparent,  but  when 
such  land  is  planted  to  corn  or  potatoes  and  the  worms  are 
thus  deprived  of  their  natural  food,  they  may  become  very 
troublesome. 

Remedies. — Late  fall  plowing  is  desirable  for  land  infested 
with  wire  worms  since  it  exposes  and  thus  kills  all  that  are 
ready  to  pupate.  By  clean  summer  fallowing  the  land  one 
season  the  worms  are  starved  out.  if  no  plants  whatever  are 
permitted  to  grow  on  it. 

Cut  Worms  (Agrotis  Sp.) — Cut  worms  often  cause  serious 
injury  by  eating  vegetable  plants.     They  are  generally  most 


Fig.  37.  Cut  Worm  and  moth, 
injurious  while  the  plants  are  small,  when  they  often  bite  off 
young  cabbage,  bean,  corn  or  other  plants  close  to  or  just 
under  the  ground  and  thus  destroy  them.  Their  work  is  most 
perceptible  in  the  spring,  on  account  of  the  small  amount  of 
growing  vegetation  at  that  time,  yet  they  also  work  in  the 
autumn.  True  cut  worms  are  the  larvae  of  several  night 
flying  moths  which  appear  late  in  summer.  The  female  de- 
posits her  eggs  late  in  the  summer.  These  soon  hatch  into 
cut  worms  which  enter  the  ground  and  live  near  the  surface 
on  the  tender  roots  of  grass  and  other  plants  until  the  ap- 
proach of  cold  weather.  They  then  descend  deeper  into  the 
ground  and  remain  torpid    until  spring,    when  they    come    to 


90  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

the  surface  and  again  commence  their  depredations.  Cut 
worms  when  full  grown,  are  from  one  and  a  quarter  to  one 
and  three-quarter  inches  long  and  rather  large  in  diameter 
as  compared  with  the  length.  Their  skin  is  of  some  dull 
color,  smooth,  with  often  dull  stripes  and  bands. 

Remedies.  Cut  worms  are  most  injurious  in  sod  land  or 
land  on  which  weeds  have  been  permitted  to  grow  in  autumn, 
or  in  land  adjacent  thereto.  They  are  not  liable  to  win- 
ter over  on  any  land  that  is  kept  free  from  weeds  and  grass  in 
autumn,  since  there  is  no  food  for  them  in  such  places.  The 
worms  feed  almost  entirely  by  night,  and  hide  during  the  day 
time  under  clods  or  just  under  the  surface  of  the  ground  near 
where  they  have  been  working.  In  a  small  way  they  may  be 
dug  out  and  destroyed,  but  in  fields  and  on  a  large  scale  a 
good  remedy  is  to  scatter  baits  of  poisoned  clover  through 
the  fields  This  is  easily  prepared  by  dipping  clover  into  Paris 
green  or  London  purple  and  water.  Where  cut  worms  are 
abundant  a  larger  amount  than  usual  of  seed  should  be 
planted,  that  a  good  stand  may  be  secured  even  if  the  worms 
do  get  some  of  it.  When  plants  such  as  cabbage,  cauliflower 
and  tomatoes  are  planted  out.  it  is  a  good  plan  to  wrap  the 
plants  with  pieces  of  stout  paper  extending  abount  an  inch 
below  and  three  inches  above  ground.  When  boxes  or  to- 
mato cans  are  set  around  plants  for  shade,  if  all  the  worms 
inside  of  them  are  destroyed,  they  afford  good  protection  from 
this  pest.  Spraying  the  plants  with  London  purple  or  Paris 
green  is  a  good  remedy.  The  moths  of  cut  worms,  as  well  as 
such  insects  as  adult  wire  worms  and  grub  worms,  may  be 
killed  at  night  by  means  of  a  lantern  suspended  over  a  tub 
of  water  having  a  little  kerosene  on  its  surface.  This  should 
be  done  late  in  summer,  when  the  moths  are  abundant. 

The  Striped  Cucumber  Beetle.  {Diabrotica  vittata.) — This  little 
beetle  attacks  squash,  cucumbers  and  melons 
when  they  are  young.     By  eating  the  foliage 

-^illllS  anc^  tender  stems  they  may  cause  the  death  of 

the  young  plants.      When    abundant  it  is   a 

very  difficult  pest  to  combat.       It    appears  in 
Pig.    38. -Striped      ,     J  .  ,  , 

cucumber  beetle,    the   spring  at  just  about  the  time  the  young 

squash  plants  are  out  of  the  ground,  having  wintered  over  in 

brush  piles  or  other  places  affording  protection.     The  beetle 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  91 

lays  its  eggs  on  the  roots  of  corn  where  the  young  do  con- 
siderable damage.  These  worms  are  full  grown  about  one 
month  from  hatching.  They  then  leave  the  roots,  make  a  little 
cavity  in  the  earth  near  by,  and  undergo  their  changes.  The 
insects  spend  the  winter  in  the  beetle  stage.  The  beetle  is 
about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long  and  is  striped  with  yellow  and 
black.  It  is  very  quick  in  its  movements  but  does  not  fly 
much,  except  in  the  middle  of  the  day. 

Remedies — An  extra  amount  of  seed  should  be  sown,  so  as 

to  secure  a  good  stand 
and  still  allow  some  for 
the  beetles.  Dusting  the 
vines,  stems  and  leaves 
when  they  are  moist, 
with  air  slaked  lime, 
road  dust  or  similar 
material  containing  a 
little  Paris  green  or 
other  poison  is  quite  a 
protection,  and  if  per- 
sistently followed  up  af- 
ter every  rain  will  gen- 
erally prevent  serious 
loss.  But  care  should 
be  taken  to  put  the  dust 
on  the  stems  as  well  as 
the  leaves.  Paris  green 
and  water  is  also  a  good 

Figure  39.— Cheesecloth  screen  for  protecting 

cucumber,  squashes  and  melon  vines  from   remedy  and    is    applied 
the  striped  beetle  when  young.  ,.  ,       ., 

the  same  as  tor  the  pota- 

tato  beetle.  Tobacco  dust  is  also  an  excellent  preventative  used 
in  this  way.  Some  gardeners  having  quite  extensive  plantings 
and  many  who  are  working  in  a  small  way  prefer  to  cover  each  hill 
with  a  box  or  frame  covered  with  cheese  cloth.  In  this  case,  the 
edges  of  the  box  or  frame  should  be  sunk  an  inch  or  so  in  the 
ground  to  keep  out  the  bugs.  Frames  for  this  purpose  are 
readily  made  of  barrel  hoops  cut  in  halves  and  fastened  to- 
gether or  of  three  slender  sticks  forming  a  sort  of  tent.  This 
method  allows  the  light  and  air  to  circulate  freely  around  the 


92 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


plants,    while    at    the     same    time    they 
tected  and  at  slight  cost. 


are    perfectly    pro- 


White  Grub  or  May  Beetles  (Lachnosternafusca). — The  insect 
known  as  the  white  grub  is  the  larval  stage  of  the  May  beetle. 
It  lives  in  the  land  where  it  feeds  on  the  roots  of  plants. 
The  mature  insect  is  a  dark  brown  beetle,  often  nearly  black 

with  breast  covered  with 
yellowish  hairs.  The 
body  is  three-fourths  of 
an  inch  long  and  about 
a  half  inch  in  diameter. 
They  fly  at  night  and 
are  well-known  insects 
of  the  spring  of  the 
year.  As  beetles  they 
fesd  on  the  leaves  of 
various  plants.  The  fe- 
males lay  their  eggs 
among  the  grass  roots 
in  a  ball  of  earth. 
These  hatch  in  about  a 
month  and  the  grubs  be- 
gin to  feed  on  the  roots 
near  by.  It  requires 
two  or  three  years  for 
the  grubs  to  get  their 
full  growth  and  they 
then  undergo  their 
changes  and  emerge  in 
the  spring  of  the  third 
or  fourth  year    as    the 

beetle  described. 
Figure  40.— May  beetles  at  night.  REMEDIES.  —  The 

grubs    are    eaten    by    birds,    moles    and   skunks.     They    are 

not    apt  to    be    abundant    in    any    but   grass    land  recently 

broken  up.     They     are     exceedingly    hard    to     destroy      on 

account  of  their  remaining  so  long  in  the  soil.     When  young 

plants  are  seen  to  be  wilting  from  the  effects  of  the  grub  they 

may  sometimes  be  taken  up,  the  grub  removed  and  the  plant 

reset.      When  lawns  or  other  grass  lands  are  badly  affected 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  93 

they  should  be  broken  up  and  grown  in  some  cultivated  crop 
for  two  years.  The  beetles  should  be  trapped  as  recommended 
for  cut  worm  moths,  when  they  become  very  abundant.  Such 
animals  as  moles  and  shrews  should  always  be  permitted  or 
even  encouraged  in  our  lawns  and  gardens  and  the  little  dam- 
age they  generally  do  suffered  patiently,  since  they  are  among 
our  best  friends  and  destroy  immense  numbers  of  white  grubs 
and  other  insects  that  live  in  the  ground,  and  are  difficult  for 
us  to  reach. 

Maggots  [Anthomyia  sp.)  They  are  often  destructive  to  the  seed 
or  roots  of  a    variety    of  plants    including    onions,  cabbage. 

cauliflower  and  similar 
plants;  they  also  attack  the 
seed  of  corn.  peas,  beans 
and  other  vegetables  some 
**»  seasons. 

Life  History.      The 

maggot   here  referred  to  is 

the  larvae    of  a  fly    some- 

rv. .  what  resembling  the  house 

M  fly.    but    brown    in    color. 

The  eggs  are    laid    in    or 

near     the    surface    of    the 

ground,    generally    on  the 

food  plants  and  hatch  out 

in    about    two    weeks  into 

maggots,  that  commence  to 

„.         (<     T>  '~  feed  at  once  and  finally  be- 

Figure  41.— Bean  and  onion  maggot.  J 

come   one-half   inch    long: 

these  change  in  two  weeks  more  to  flies.  This  insect  winters 
over  in  the  pupa  state  in  the  ground. 

Remedies.  When  this  insect  attacks  onions  the  infested 
plants  turn  yellow  and  look  sickly  and  they  should  be  pulled 
and  destroyed.  The  same  treatment  should  be  given  to  any 
onions  that  may  be  found  infested  at  harvest  time.  When  on- 
ion land  becomes  badly  infested  with  this  pest,  crop  rotation 
should  be  practiced  and  no  onions  should  be  raised  near  it  for 
a  year  or  two.  When  beans,  corn  and  peas  are  affected,  the 
seed  should  be  treated  with  a  very  thin  coating  of  coal  tar  and 
afterwards  rolled  in  plaster  or  other  dust.     The  coal  tar  may 


dUIEU 


94 


VEGE  TABLE   GARDENING. 


be  applied  as  follows:  Spread  the  grain  out  in  a  warm  room 
on  the  floor  about  one  foot  deep  and  wet  it  with  warm 
water:  sprinkle  on  a  very  little  tar  (which  should  be  warm) 
and  then  stir  the  whole  mass  thoroughly  until  each  grain  is 
coated:  then  roll  it  in  plaster  to  dry  it  off.  If  this  is  carefully 
done  the  grains  will  not  stick  together  and  may  be  planted  by 
seed  planter.  This  treatment  also  prevents  crows,  gophers 
and  squirrels  from  pulling  newly  planted  corn. 

When  it  attacks  cabbage,  cauliflower  and  similar  plants 
it  may  be  destroyed  by  kerosene  emulsion,  since  the  maggots 
work  on  the  stem  and  roots  of  the  plants,  near  the  surface  of 
the  ground  and  such  an  application  would  be  practicable  in 
this  case,  while  in  the  case  of  many  other  crops  such  as  on- 
ions, beans,  etc.,  it  might  be  quite  out  of  the  question  on  ac- 
count of  the  large  number  of  plants  that  would  have  to  be 
treated  to  make  it  effectual.  In  the  case  of  cabbage,  however, 
it  may  be  prevented  from  entering  by  inserting  the  plant 
through  a  small  piece  of  tarred  paper,  that  is  allowed  to  remain 
flat  on  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Cabbage  Flea  Beetle  [HaMcus  sp.).  There  are  several  in- 
sects closely  resembling  each  other  and  known  as  cabbage  flea 


Fig.  42.    Different  species  of  flea  beetles  with  their  larvae. 

beetles  that  feed  on  the  surface  of  the  leaves  of   cabbage,  tur- 
nips, radish,  cauliflower,  etc.,  and  various  wild  plants.     They 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  95 

are  very  injurious  to  the  very  young-  plants  if  allowed  to  have 
their  way,  but  when  the  plants  are  nicely  started  they  do  not 
seem  to  be  seriously  incommoded  by  this  pest.  These  beetles 
are  very  small  and  move  very  quickly.  The  adult  insect  is 
black,  or  nearly  so;  some  of  them  lay  their  eggs  near  the 
roots  of  the  food  plants,  where  the  larvae  do  some  damage;  in 
other  cases  the  eggs  are  laid  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves 
and  the  larvae  mine  into  them  and  live  between  the  upper  and 
lower  surfaces.  But  their  chief  damage  is  as  beetles,  in 
which  form  they  pass  the  winter.  A  species  of  flea  beetles  is 
sometimes  destructive  to  potato  vines. 

Remedies.  Since  these  are  biting  insects,  they  are  readily 
killed  by  Paris  green  or  London  purple  in  the  usual  propor- 
tions. If  the  plants  are  kept  dusted  with  air  slaked  lime  or 
plaster,  they  are  measurably  protected  from  this  insect.  But 
latter  applications  are  greatly  improved  by  adding-  a  little 
poison  to  them. 

Leaf  Lice  or  Aphides  (Aphis  sp.)  The  leaf  lice,  otherwise 
called  aphides,  that  live  on  plants  have  very  much  the  same 
general  habits.  They  are  all  sucking-  insects  and  increase 
with  great  rapidity  when  their  food  plants  are  abundant. 
They  generally  winter  over  in  the  egg  stage.  The  summer 
broods  are  often  brought  forth  alive  without  the  intervention 
of  the  egg  state.  Kerosene  emulsion  and  tobacco  water  are 
the  usual  remedies  but  hot  water  and  pyrethrum  will  also  de- 
stroy them.  Leaf  lice  are  eaten  by  the  larvae  of  lady  bugs 
and  they  are  also  subject  to  attacks  of  parasites.  When  the 
lice  are  coated  with  a  meal-like  covering  that  sheds  water  and 
prevents  their  being  wet  by  insecticides,  they  should  first  be 
sprayed  with  strong  soap  suds  to  remove  the  mealy  covering, 
and  then  the  insecticide  may  be  applied  successfully. 

Cabbage  Lice  or  Aphides  [Aphis  brassicce.)  These  are  light 
brown  insects  covered  with  a  floury  substance.  They  attack 
turnips,  cauliflowers,  rutabagas  and  similar  plants,  as  well 
as  the  cabbage.  They  work  generally  on  the  lower  side  of  the 
leaves  where  they  collect  most  abundantly.  They  are  most 
numerous  in  dry  seasons.  The  remedies  for  them  are  given 
under  the  general  head  of  leaf  lice,  but  in  addition  to  those  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  burn  or  compost  all  the  old  cabbage  leaves 
and  stumps,  since  the  eggs  winter  over  attached  to  them. 


96  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

Sweet  Com  Moth  or  Tassel  Worm  (Hdiophila  unipucta.)  This  is 
the  boll-worm  of  the  south  It  eats  into  the  green  grain  of 
the  corn,  but  is  seldom  very  troublesome  at  the  north.  Dr. 
Lugger  thinks  that  it  does  not  winter  over  in  the  extreme 
northern  states,  but  that  the  moths  come  from  the  south  each 
year.  The  only  remedy  is  hand  picking.  It  is  doubtful  if 
they  will  ever  become  very  injurious  in  the  northern  states 
since  they  do  not  begin  their  work  there  until  late  in  theseason. 

The  Parsley  Worm  or  Celery  Caterpillar  (Pap Mo  asterias.)  This 
worm  eats  the  foliage  of  celery,  carrot,  parsley  and  allied 
plants  but  is  not  often  very  injurious.  The  mature  insect  is  a 
beautiful  large  black  butterfly  having  yellow  and  blue  spots 
on  its  wings.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  foliage  and  hatch  into 
small  caterpillars  less  than  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long,  which 
when  full  grown  are  one  and  a  half  inches  long.  It  has  bright 
yellow  markings.  The  remedy  is  to  hand  pick  the  worms, 
which  are  seldom  abundant. 

Chinch  Bugs  (Blissus  leucopteris.)  The  chinch  bug  does  not 
trouble  any  of  our  garden  products  except  corn,  but  is  some- 
times very  injurious  to  this  vegetable  and 
may  kill  it  in  a  very  few  days  if  neglected. 
This  is  a  sucking  insect  that  winters  over 
in  the  adult  state  under  leaves  and  in  dry  pro- 
tected places  generally.  When  full  grown 
it  is  about  one-seventh  of  an  inch  long  with 
white  upper  wings,  which  have  two  well  de- 
stined black  spots  on  them.  When  crushed 
they  have  an  offensive  bed-bug-like  odor. 
-.This  insect  is  not  affected  by  cold  weather 
but  succumbs  quickly  to  moisture.  The  fe- 
male deposits  her  eggs  near  theground  upon 
Fig.   42,-Chinch  bug.  the  stemg  Qr  rootg  of  wheat,  oatg>  g-rasses?  etc. 

Remedies.  The  burning  of  rubbish  accumulations  along 
headlands,  fences,  etc.,  in  the  winter  or  early  spring  in  in- 
fested localities  will  destroy  many.  They  always  infest  the 
small  grains  before  they  do  corn. 

While  these  insects  have  wings  they  use  them  but  little  in 
their  migrations  in  summer.  They  travel  on  foot  and  often 
in  great  numbers.  Taking  advantage  of  these  peculiarities, 
they  may  be  kept  from  corn  fields  by  plowing  deep  furrows  in 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  97 

their  way,  which  should  be  turned  back  as  soon  as  filled  with 
bug's  and  new  furrows  made.  Fences  of  boards  six  inches 
high  with  the  upper  edge  kept  covered  with  tar  will  keep  them 
out,  but  holes  in  the  ground  should  be  made  at  intervals  along 
the  line  of  the  boards, which  when  full  of  bugs  should  be  filled 
in  with  earth,  and  new  holes  made.  A  dusty  headland 
or  road  is  very  difficult  for  them  to  get  through.  If  they 
finally  reach  the  corn,  they  will  readily  succumb  to  kerosene 
emulsion.  Much  is  being  done  to  rid  grain  fields  of  this  pest 
by  infecting  the  bugs  with  disease.  This  works  most  rapidly 
in  moist  weather,  but  other  remedies  should  not  be  put  aside 
for  this  one. 

Bean  and  Pea  Weevil  (Bruchus  sp.)  The  insects  known  as 
weevils  are  quite  common  in  some  sections.  They  work  in  the 
seed  of  beans  and  peas.  The  adult  insects  are  small  beetles 
which  lay  their  eggs  in  the  flowers,  where  they  soon  hatch,  and 
the  young  larvae  eat  their  way  into  the  immature  seeds.  The 
hole  by  which  the  larva  enters  the  seed  grows  completely  over, 
so  that  the  seed  appears  unimpaired  externally.  In  the  seed 
the  larva  does  not  touch  the  germ,  though  it  may  eat  up  a 
large  part  of  the  starch.  The  larva  undergoes  its  changes  in 
the  seed,  and  when  these  have  been  completed  the  beetles  emerge 
through  quite  large  holes  in  the  shell  of  the  seed.  While  seed 
that  is  infested  may  germinate,  it  forms  only  weak  plants  that 
are  very  sure  to  fail  to  mature  a  full  crop.  Similar  insects 
also  attack  corn.  There  is  another  species  that  breeds  in 
stored  grain,  peas  and  beans,  etc.,  but  it  is  not  common  as  yet. 

Remedies.  These  insects  are  generally  somewhat  local  in 
range.  Whenever  any  locality  is  infested  the  date  of  planting- 
should  be  delayed  two  weeks,  by  which  the  beetles  fail  to  find 
the  crop  ready  when  they  are  ready  to  lay  their  eggs.  This 
trouble  generally  comes  from  sowing  infested  seeds.  These 
may  be  separated  from  the  good  seed  by  throwing  them  into 
water,  when  the  good  will  sink,  but  those  infested  will  float. 
Another  method  is  to  treat  the  seed  with  carbon  bisulphide,  as 
recommended  under  that  head.  If  the  seed  is  kept  over  two 
years  the  beetles  will  have  come  out.  The  species  that  breeds 
in  the  grain  is  mosteasily  destroyed  and  kept  out  of  theseed  by 
using  bisulphide  of  carbon,  as  recommended. 

Squash    Vine   Borer   (Aegeria    cucurbitce.)— The   squash   vine 


98  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

borer  is  the  larva  of  a  moth.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  stems 
of  the  young-  plants  near  the  roots  of  cucumber,  squash  and 
melon  vines.  The  larvae  on  hatching  burrow  into  the  stem 
and  follow  along-  the  center,  which  causes  the  plants  to  wilt  and 
finally  to  die.  The  full  grown  borer  measures  about  one  inch 
in  length  and  has  a  whitish  body  with  a  brown  head.  The 
borers  leave  the  stems  the  latter  part  of  the  summer,  and  win- 
ter over  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  cocoons  composed 
partly  of  earth.     The  moth  emerges  the  following  spring. 

Remedies.  This  insect  is  not  yet  found  in  this  section  but 
is  common  in  the  eastern  stages,  and  where  it  is  found  all 
withered  or  dead  vines  should  be  destroyed.  When  vines 
have  only  commenced  to  wilt  the  borer  may  often  be  cut  out, 
and  the  vine  recover.  It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  cover  several 
of  the  lower  joints  of  squash  vines  with  earth  to  encourage 
the  formation  of  extra  sets  of  roots  at  these  places. 

The  Squash  Bug  (Anasa  tristis.) — This  insect  makes  its  ap- 
pearance the  latter  part  of  June  or  the  first  of  July.  The  females 
deposit  their  brownish-yellow  eggs  in  small  patches  on  the  un- 
der side  of  the  leaves.  These  hatch  into  nymphs,  that  suck 
the  sap  of  the  leaves,  often  seriously  injuring  them.  The  full 
grown  bug  is  a  little  over  one-half  inch  long,  a  rusty  black 
color  above  and  yellowish  beneath.  They  emit  a  disagree- 
able odor  when  touched.  They  winter  over  in  rubbish,  under 
boards  or  anywhere  they  can  find  protection. 

Remedies.  Hand  picking  in  the  morning  and  evening,  when 
the  bugs  are  somewhat  torpid,  is  the  most  practical  remedy. 
Boards  laid  among  the  plants  at  night  will  be  found  to  have 
many  bugs  under  them  in  the  morning,  and  these  may  be 
crushed  or  otherwise  destroyed.  Large  numbers  may  be  killed 
in  this  way. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

asparagus  (Asparagus  officinalis.) 

Native  of  Europe. — Perennial. — The  asparagus  is  an 
herbaceous  plant,  growing  to  the  height  of  about  four  feet. 
The  flowers  are  small  and  generally  yellow.     They  are  perfect, 

but  in  many  plants 
the  pistils  are  abort- 
ive, so  that  only 
about  half  of  the 
plants  produce  seed. 
The  seed  is  produced 
in  spherical  berries, 
that  are  vermillion 
in  color  when  they 
ripen  in  the  autumn; 
they  are  black  and 
triangular,  number- 
ing about  1400  to  the 
ounce.  Asparagus  is 
one  of  the  most  valu- 
able garden  vegeta- 
bles. It  is  perfectly 
hardv      and      never 


Figure  43.— Asparagus  plant  full  grown. 


fails  to  produce  a  crop.  It  is  one  of  the  first  vegetables  to  be 
obtained  in  the  spring  and  may  be  used  until  the  middle  of 
June.  Perhaps,  no  other  vegetable  is  more  highly  esteemed 
by  those  who  are  accustomed  to  its  use.  It  may  be  grown 
with  success  in  any  good  corn  land,  but  is  worthy  of  the  best 
of  care,  as  it  responds  readily  to  rich  manure  and  high  culti- 
vation. On  sandy  loam  the  crop  is  much  earlier  than  on  clay 
soils;  wet  land  is  not  suited  to  it. 

Propagation. — It  grows  readily  from  seed,  and  one  ounce  of 
seed  is  sufficient  for  about  fifty  feet  of  drill  and  should  pro- 
duce with  good  care  about  four  hundred  plants,  though  no 


100 


VEETABLE  GARDENING. 


particular  care  is  necessary  for  success.  The  seed  should  be 
sown  in  good  soil,  early  in  the  spring,  in  drills  which 
maybe  as  close  as  sixteen  inches  apart,  and  should  be  covered 
about  one  inch  deep.  As  asparagus  seed  starts  slowly,  it  is 
a  good  plan  to  sow  radishes  or  other  early  maturing  crops 
with  it,  so  that  the  rows  may  be  seen  and  weeding  commenced 
early.     This  practice  does  not  interfere  with  the  growth  of  the 


Figure  44.— Asparagus  root  with  edible  shoots. 

asparagus,  as  the  radishes  will  be  ready  for  use  and  out  of 
the  way  before  it  needs  much  room.  The  seedling  asparagus 
will  be  large  enough  for  transplanting  to  the  permanent 
plantation  when  one  year  old,  aud  it  is  the  best  plan  to  do 
this,  but  they  may  be  allowed  to  stand  two  years  in  the  seed  bed. 
The  young  seedling  plants  which  often  come  up  in  or  near 
asparagus  beds  may  be  transplanted  in  July  of  the  first  year 
directly  to  the  permanent  bed,  and  do  very  well  if  handled 
carefully.  At  whatever  age  they  are  transplanted,  the  plants 
should  be  dug  and  set  out  in  the  spring  or  early  summer,  as 


ASPARAGUS.  101 

they  are  likely  to  fail  when  removed  in  the  autumn.  Aspar- 
agus may  be  increased  by  dividing-  the  crowns,  but  this  is  an 
expensive  process,  and  plants  so  grown  have  no  peculiar  merit 
over  those  from  seed.  By  buying  the  plants,  instead  of  sow- 
ing the  seed. to  start  with, one  or  two  years'  time  may  be  saved, 
and  frequently  it  is  cheaper  to  buy  the  plants  than  to  raise 
them  in  a  small  way.  It  is  said  that  plants  that  do  not  bear 
seed  produce  more  sprouts  than  those  that  do. 

Planting. — While  asparagus  should  always  be  moved  in 
the  spring,  it  is  not  necessary  to  move  it  very  early,  though 
it  is  better  to  do  so  :  it  may  be  successfully  transplanted  as 
late  as  the  first  of  June.  Any  long  sprouts  that  may  have 
started  should  be  broken  off  when  the  plants  are  set  out. 
The  land  for  planting  should  be  heavily  manured,  deeply- 
plowed  and  finely  pulverized,  and  it  is  important  to  do  this 
work  well,  as  asparagus  beds  well  made  should  last  at  least 
twenty  years.  The  opinions  of  different  growers  as  to  dis- 
tance between  plants  vary  much.  It  has  been  advocated  to 
set  the  plants  four  feet  apart  each  way,  and  if  the  soil  is  re- 
markably fertile  this  distance  will  not  be  too  great:  if  the 
land  is  not  very  rich,  it  is  customary  to  put  the  plants  at  in- 
tervals of  three  feet  in  rows  four  feet  apart.  Where  a  bed  for 
a  family  garden  is  desired,  it  is  probably  best  to  set  the 
plants  three  by  three  feet  apart.  About  100  plants  will  pro- 
duce all  the  sprouts  needed  in  an  ordinary  garden. 

Depth  to  Plant. — For  ordinary  purposes  asparagus  roots 
should  be  planted  about  six  inches  deep:  the  deeper  they  are 
planted,  the  later  they  will  be  about  starting  in  the  spring;  if 
planted  less  than  six  inches  deep,  the  roots  push  up  to  the 
surface  and  interfere  with  cultivation.  The  plants  should  not 
be  covered  to  the  full  depth  of  six  inches  at  once,  or  the 
shoots  may  never  be  able  to  push  up  to  the  surface.  The 
furrowrs  should  be  made  with  a  plowT  to  the  proper  depth,  the 
plants  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  and  covered  about 
three  inches  to  begin  with,  and  the  furrows  filled  in  by  after 
cultivation  as  the  tops  grow.  By  the  middle  of  the  summer 
the  furrows  should  be  level  full. 

Cultivation  during  the  first  year  can  be  done  almost  entire- 
ly with  a  horse,  though  some  hand  hoeing  will  be  necessary 
between   the  plants.      By    autumn  of  the  first  year,  the  tops 


102  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

should  be  three  feet  high.  As  soon  as  they  are  dead,  they 
should  be  cut  off  close  to  the  ground  with  a  heavy,  sharp  hoe 
or  similar  tool,  and  then  the  land  should  have  a  light  plow- 
ing or  be  worked  up  with  a  harrow  to  a  depth  of  four  inches. 
No  care  need  to  be  taken  about  the  plants  when  cultivating  at 
this  season  of  the  year,  but  the  whole  surface  may  be  culti- 
vated or  plowed  three  inches  deep  as  though  no  crop  was  in 
the  land.  In  the  spring  the  land  should  be  cultivated  as  soon 
as  it  will  work  well  in  order  that  it  may  warm  up  quickly. 
There  will  be  no  crop  to  cut  until  the  spring  of  the  third  year; 
a  very  little,  however,  may  be  safely  cut  the  second  year  after 
planting.  The  cultivation  in  subsequent  years  should  be  very 
much  the  same  as  that  given  above,  but,  in  addition,  when  the 
crop  has  been  all  harvested  and  cutting  is  to  cease,  which 
will  be  about  the  middle  or  last  of  June  in  the  northern  states, 
the  whole  bed  should  have  a  thorough  cultivation  to  the  depth 
of  three  inches  without  regard  to  the  rows,  and  if  manure  is  to 
be  used,  it  should  be  put  on  at  this  time.  Under  this  method 
of  treatment,  it  is  unnecessary  to  do  much  hand  weeding,  and 
it  is  very  easy  to  keep  the  soil  in  the  best  condition  by  horse 
power.  After  the  thorough  cultivation  in  June,  all  the  sprouts 
that  come  up  from  the  roots  should  be  permitted  to  grow  un- 
til autumn,  by  which  time  they  should  be  about  five  feet  high 
if  in  good  soil  and  will  have  ripe  seed.  It  is  necessary  to 
allow  the  top  to  grow  to  this  extent  in  order  that  plant  food 
may  be  stored  up  in  the  roots.  Very  late  cutting  weakens  the 
growth  of  the  plants. 

Cutting.— When  the  crop  is  grown  for  marketing,  it  is  not 
desirable  to  cut  the  shoots  until  the  third  season  after  plant- 
ing the  roots;  however,  in  the  case  of  small  beds  in  the  gar- 
den where  the  planter  is  very  anxious  to  test  the  fruit  of  his 
labor,  it  may  be  well  to  note  that  no  harm  is  liable  to  come 
from  a  very  slight  cutting  the  second  season.  The  sprouts 
should  be  cut  as  they  appeal*  in  the  spring,  and  all  of  them 
should  be  cut  when  of  the  proper  size,  although  they  may  not 
be  needed  at  that  time.  If  permitted  to  grow,  they  interfere 
with  subsequent  cutting  and  prevent  the  growth  of  new  sprouts. 
They  will  also  be  in  the  way  of  cultivation  later  in  the  season. 
The  sprouts  are  generally  cut  off  when  about  six  inches  high 
about  two  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  in  this 


ASPARAGUS.  103 

case  all  but  two  inches  of  the  asparagus  is  green,  which  is 
right  for  most  markets.  Some  people  prefer  to  have  sprouts 
bleached,  and  in  such  cases  they  should  be  cut  four  or  five 
inches  deep  in  the  ground.  In  case  white  sprouts  are  wanted, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  hill  up  around  the  hills  or  to  cover 
them  with  fine  manure  to  keep  the  sunlight  away  from  the 
shoots.     The   time   between  the  cuttings  is  largely  dependent 


Figure  45.— Method  of  bunching  asparagus,   showing  ioose  sprouts,  boxes 
for  tying  up  in  and  completed  bunches. 

on  the  weather.  In  early  spring,  if  the  weather  is  rather  cold, 
plants  may  not  give  more  than  one  cutting  per  week,  but  later 
in  the  season  a  good  cutting  will  perhaps  be  secured  once  in 
two  days.  A  severe  frost  will  kill  all  the  shoots  above  ground 
but  will  not  injure  subsequent  cuttings.  Asparagus  is 
marketed  by  tying  the  sprouts  in  bunches,  the  size  of  the 
bunches  depending  much  upon  the  market  and,  in  some  places, 
on  the  season  and  whether  the  supply  is  plentiful  or  not.  It 
is  very  desirable,  however,  to  have  all  the  bunches  of  one  size 
when  marketed.  It  is  preferable  to  tie  the  sprouts  when  they 
are  just  a  little  wilted  and  then  set  them  in  water  to  swell 
and  make  the  bands  tight.  The  shoots  will  easily  keep  for 
a  week  if  kept  cold  and  moist.  It  is  customary  to  stand  the 
bunches  on  end  in  water  in  keeping  them. 

Manuring. — If  manure  is  applied  to  the  asparagus  bed  in 
autumn  or  before  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground  in  the  spring, 
it  prevents  the  frost  from  coming  out  of  the  ground  and  so 
keeps  back  the  growth,  unless  the  manure  applied  is  very  fine 
and  is  at  once  cultivated  into  the  soil.     Sometimes  such  treat- 


104  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

ment  will  keep  the  sprouts  from  starting  for  a  week  or  more 
at  a  season  when  it  is  most  relished  and  the  market  price  is 
the  highest.  On  this  account  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  manure 
asparagus  in  June  at  the  close  of  the  cutting  season,  as  it  can 
then  be  thoroughly  cultivated  into  the  soil  and  does  not  inter- 
fere in  any  way  with  the  growth  of  the  plants  in  the  spring. 
Asparagus  is  a  rank  feeder  and  needs  lots  of  manure  for  the 
best  results.  Salt  may  be  applied  to  asparagus  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  kill  all  the  weeds  without  injuring  the  plants,  and 
yet  careful  experiments  seem  to  show  that  salt  is  of  no  special 
value  as  a  manure  for  this  crop. 

Asparagus  seed  is  readily  taken  from  the  fruits  in  which 
it  grows  by  macerating  the  fruit  in  water  and  then  drying  it. 

Forcing  Asparagus  for  early  use  is  being  done  to  some  ex- 
tent near  large  cities,  where  it  is  often  a  profitable  undertak- 
ing. For  this  purpose  the  roots  must  be  dug  in  the  fall  and 
ca,refully  stored  in  earth  in  a  cellar.  In  March  make  a  good, 
slow  hotbed  and  put  the  roots  in  it  in  good  soil.  It  is  im- 
portant to  start  the  roots  slowly,  or  the  shoots  will  be  spind- 
ing  and  weak.  The  roots  stored  as  recommended  may  also 
be  forced  into  growth  in  a  warm  cellar,  shed,  greenhouse,  or 
in  a  part  of  a  permanent  bed  enclosed  in  glass  or  cotton 
sheeting. 

Varieties.— There  are  a  number  of  varieties,  and  they  are 
all  of  them  desirable  when  given  good  cultivation.  Among 
the  best  kinds  are  Conover's  Colossal,  Moore's  and  Palmetto. 

BEANS  [Phaseolus.) 

Annual. — Thecommon  beans  of  this  country  are  natives  of 
the  warmer  parts  of  South  America.  They  are  sometimes 
referred  to  as  kidney  or  French  beans  (  P.  vulgaris.)  Besides 
these,  the  Lima  beans  ( P.  lunatus)  are  cultivated  to  a  limited 
extent.  The  common  broad  bean  of  Europe  is  an  entirely 
different  vegetable  from  the  kinds  generally  grown  here  and 
is  not  sufficiently  prolific  in  this  section  to  make  it  worthy  of 
cultivation.  There  are  many  varieties  of  beans,  and  the 
varieties  of  each  species  readily  cross  together,  the  flowers 
being  especially  adapted  to  crossing.  They  vary  from  one 
another  in  many  particulars;  some  are  low,  bushy  and  erect, 
while  others  are  twining  and  have  stems  that  grow  ten  or  more 


BEANS. 


105 


feet  in  a  season.  There  are  gradations  between  these  extremes, 
as  well  as  in  size,  color  and  shape  of  seed  and  plant.  The 
twining-  stem  kinds  always  twine  from  right  to  left  around  any 
support  they  can  lay  hold  of.  In  a  horticultural  way,  beans 
are  divided  into  the  bush  and  pole  varieties.  Under  the  first 
class  are  included  all  the  field  varieties  that  are  grown  to  be 
used  as  shelled  beans  and  some  snap  and  string  beans.  They 
have  stout,  erect  or  slightly  running  stems.  Under  pole  beans 
are  classed  all  the  kinds  that  have  twining  stems  and  which 
are  benefited  by  having  support  of  some  kind.  There  are, 
however,  dwarf  bush  beans  having  the  same  general  features 
as  the  pole  kinds  except  the  tall  stem.  While  this  division  is 
by  no  means  distinct,  yet  the  methods  of  cultivation  adapted 
to  each  group  are  different.  All  beans  are  quite  tender  and 
should  not  be  planted  until  the  soil  is  warm  and  all  danger  of 
frost  is  over.  They  are  sown  for  early  use  about  the  time  for 
general  corn  planting.  For  the  main  crop,  they  should  be 
planted  about  the  first  of  June. 

Bush  Beans.— These  are  very  easily  grown  and  adapted  to  a 
great  variety  of  purposes.     For  a  field  crop  on  a  large  scale, 

the  seed  is  generally 
sown  with  a  horse 
drill  or  with  a  gar- 
den drill,  in  rows 
three  feet  apart.  It 
is  sometimes  best  to 
mark  out  the  land 
first  and  then  follow 
with  the  drill  in  the 
marks.  Seed  should 
be  sown  two  or  three 
inches  deep.  On  a 
smaller  scale,  the  land 
may  be  furrowed  out 
with  a  one-horse  plow 
or  with  a  wheel  hoe. 
and  the  seed  sowed 
Fig.  46.    Bush  bean.  by  hand.     The    after 

culture  consists  in  keeping  the  land  well  cultivated  with  ahorse 
hoe  and  free  from  weeds.     Varieties  of  dwarf  beans  for  use  in 


106 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


a  green  state,  such  as  string  or  snap  beans,  may  be  sown  any 
time  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  first  of  August,  and  with 
good  prospects  of  a  good  crop  of  green  pods.  Some  kinds 
have  edible  pods  in  less  than  six  weeks  from  the  time  the  seed 
is  sown. 

Harvesting  Beans. — For  use  in  a  green  state,  the  pods  of 
some  kinds  are  picked  as  soon  as  large  enough  to  use  and 
when  they  are  tender  and  fresh:  in  other  cases,  the  beans  are 
used  when  still  fresh  and  as  soon  as  they  are  large  enough  to 
shell  from  the  pods.  Field  beans  are  harvested  by  being 
pulled  by  hand  or  gathered  with  a  bean  gatherer  when  they 
are  ripe,  laid  in  rows  until  dry  enough  for  threshing,  then 
threshed  at  once  or  stored  for  threshing  later  on.  Great  care 
should  be  taken  in  storing  the  pods  to  prevent  molding  of  the 
beans,  and  in  threshing  not  to  break  the  beans.  In  a  small 
way,  beans  may  be  threshed  out  by  hand,  but  on  a  large  scale 
any  common  threshing  machine  may  be  used,  providing  suit- 
able changes  are  made  in  it  so  it  will  not  break  the  beans. 

Varieties  of  Bush  Beans. — There  are  many  varieties  of  bush 
beans  having  desirable  qualities,  but  only  a  few  of  the  most 

valuable  are  mentioned  here: 

Field  Beans.— White  Mar- 
row, Burlingame  Medium,  Navy, 
and  Snowflake. 

Waxen  Podded  Beans. — 
Dwarf  Golden  Wax  and  Dwarf 
Black  Wax. 

Shell  and  String  Beans. 
— Yellow  Six  Weeks,  Early  Mo- 
hawk, Cranberry  and  Dwarf 
Horticultural. 

Japanese,     Soy   or    Soja 
Beans. — These  are  easily  grown, 
but  on  account  of  their   inferior 
quality  are  not  much  used  here. 
Dwarf    Lima    Beans.— These    are   highly   esteemed   by 
those  who  know  them,  and,  although  smaller  in  size  than  the 
pole    Limas,    are  supplanting  them  in  this  section  and  com- 
ing  into    general  use,   on    account  of  their  being  more   cer- 


Fig,  47.— Dwarf  Lima  bean. 


BEANS.  107 

tain  to  mature  well  and  requiring  less  labor  in  cultivation. 
They  require  the  same  methods  of  cultivation  as  other  dwarf 
beans  but  should  not  be  planted  until  the  land  is  thoroughly 
warmed.  The  best  varieties  are  known  as  Henderson's  Dwarf, 
Burpee's  Dwarf,  Jackson  Wonder  (black  spotted)  and  Kumerle 
Dwarf  Lima.  The  common  dwarf  beans  are  early,  productive 
and  good,  but  not  so  rich  in  quality  as  these. 

Pole  Beans.— The  twining  varieties  of  beans  are  little  grown 
in  this  section,  as  the  improved  dwarf  kinds  take  their  place 
to  a  great  extent.  However,  tall  Lima  beans  are  highly 
esteemed  by  many,  and  the  dwarf  varieties  of  them  are  not 
so  desirable  as  the  pole  kinds.  Thereis  als  o  a  demand  for  sucIl 
shell  beans  as  the  pole  Horticultural,  Cranberry  and  Case- 
knife  varieties.  Pole  beans  require  stronger  land  than  do  the 
dwarf  kinds.  The  ordinary  way  of  growing  pole  beans  is  to 
set  poles  six  feet  long  in  hills  four  feet  apart  each  way.  It  is 
customary  to  put  a  shovelful  of  good  compost  or  rotted 
manure  in  each  hill  if  the  land  is  poor.  Seed  should  not  be 
planted  till  the  ground  is  quite  warm — the  pole  varieties  are- 
more  particular  in  this  respect  than  the  dwarf  kinds.  About, 
six  seeds  should  be  planted  two  or  three  inches  deep  around 
each  pole.  In  the  case  of  the  Lima  bean,  the  general  belief  is 
that  the  beans  should  be  planted  edgeways  with  the  eye  down- 
wards, but  good  results  are  often  obtained  by  sowing  the. 
seeds  without  regard  to  this  matter.  This  latter  method  is 
customary  in  sowing  the  dwarf  Lima,  and  some  who  sow  the 
large  Lima  beans  in  furrows  and  train  them  to  trellises  pajr 
no  regard  to  the  position  of  the  seed  in  the  soil,  but  sow 
abundance  of  seed  so  as  to  have  a  good  stand.  Lima  beans 
are  generally  shelled  by  hand  when  fresh  but  full  grown  and 
are  sold  by  the  quart.  In  warm  climates  they  are  sold  in 
large  quantities  after  being  dried.  The  Cranberry  and  Horti- 
cultural kinds  are  generally  sold  in  the  pod.  As  soon  as  the- 
seedlings  commence  to  "run,"  it  is  customary  to  assist  them 
in  getting  started,  and  some  seasons  it  is  necessary  to  tie  the 
Lima  beans  to  the  poles.  Lima  beans  require  an  extra  warm 
location  and  soil. 

Beans  may  be  transplanted  if  removed  with  care  when  the 
soil  is  moist.  Some  very  successful  gardeners  find  that  it 
pays  them  to  start  their  pole  Lima  beans  on  pieces  of  sod  or 


108 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


in  pots  or  in  boxes  in  hotbeds  and  in  this  way  advance  the 
period  of  ripening-  two  weeks  or  more.  This  is  a  very  desir- 
able practice  with  pole  Lima  beans  in  this  climate,  since  the 
short  season  often  fails  to  mature  much  of  the  crop  when  the 
seed  is  planted  in  the  open  ground.  The  varieties  of  pole 
lima  beans  best  adapted  to  this  section  are  probably  the  Large 
Lima  and  Dreer's  Lima:  both  of  these  are  of  fine  quality  and 
productive.  The  small  Lima  or  Sieva  bean  is  earlier  than 
those  mentioned  but  of  inferior  quality. 

Preserving  Beans  in  Salt. — String  beans  are  easily  preserved 
for  winter  use  in  salt,  using  about  seven  pounds  to  the  bushel 

of  pods.  In  doing  this  the  fresh 
tender  pods  are  put  at  once  into  the 
brine  as  they  come  from  the  field. 
When  wanted  for  use,  they  should 
be  freshened  out  and  cooked  in  the 
ordinary  way.  They  are  very  good: 
in  fact,  they  are  nearly  as  good  as 
the  best  canned  beans. 


Diseases  and  Insects. — Beans  are 
quite  free  from  the  attacks  of  any 
injurious  insects  or  diseases.  An- 
thracnose  of  the  bean  {Gloeosporium 
Lindennthianum)  shows  itself  by 
black  spots  on  the  stems  or  pods 
or  both.  It  is  sometimes  very  in- 
jurious in  moist  weather,  but  only 
in  occasional  years  have  we  any- 
thing to  fear  from  it.  It  is  not  gen- 
erally considered  profitable  to  use  any  of  the  fungicides,  such 
as  Bordeaux  mixture,  which  would  readily  prevent  it. 


Fi£ 


48.— Anthracnose  of 
bean  pods. 


BEETS.     {Beta  vulgaris.) 

Native  of  Europe. — Biennial. — This  plant  in  the  first  year 
•of  its  growth  forms  a  fleshy  root,  and  goes  to  seed  the  second 
year.  The  seed  stalk  is  about  four  feet  high.  What  is  usual- 
ly sold  and  planted  as  beet  seed  is  in  reality  a  fruit  and  is 
made  up  of  several  seeds  imbedded  in  the  cork-like  calyx ;  the 
seed  itself  is  very  small  and  kidney  shaped,  with  a  thin  brown 


BEETS. 


109 


skin.  The  roots  vary  greatly  in  form,  size  and  in  color 
from  a  reddish  white  to  a  deep  dark  red.  Some  varieties  have 
special  qualities  for  table  use,  while  others  are  valuable  for 
feeding  stock  or  for  sugar  only. 

The  garden  beet  is  easily  grown  and  is  a  very  reliable 
crop.  It  prefers  a  very  rich,  sandy,  well-worked  soil  but  will 
grow  in  any  good  corn  land.  For  early  use,  some  early 
maturing  kind  should  be  selected,  and  the  seeds  should  be 
sown  in  rows  sixteen  inches  apart  in  the  open  ground  as  soon 

as  the  soil  can  be  worked  in 
the  spring.  Ten  seeds  should 
be  sown  to  each  foot  of  row 
and  covered  one  inch  deep. 
The  young  plants  will  stand 
quite  a  severe  frost  without 
injury.  As  soon  as  the  seed- 
lings appear  they  should  be 
cultivated  with  a  wheel  hoe, 
and  the  cultivation  repeated 
at  frequent  intervals.  When 
they  are  eight  or  ten  inches 
high,  thinning  should  be  com- 
menced and  continued  until 
the  plants  are  six  inches  apart 
in  the  rows.  These  thinnings 
make  excellent  greens.  If 
sown  as  recommended,  they 
will  be  large  enough  for  table 
use  in  June  and  will  be  good 
Fig.  49.-Bunch  of  Eclipse  beets.  for  use  the  rest  of  the  summer. 
For  winter  use,  the  seed  should  not  be  sown  until  the  last  of 
May  or  first  of  June.  For  late  planting,  some  growers  prefer 
to  put  the  rows  two  feet  or  more  apart,  so  that  wThen  the  plants 
are  nicely  started  they  can  be  cultivated  by  horse  power. 
Stock  and  sugar  beets  should  be  sown  in  rows  about  thirty 
inches  apart,  to  allow  of  easy  cultivation.  These  should  be 
sown  from  the  middle  to  the  last  of  May  and  covered  some- 
what deeper  than  is  recommended  for  early  table  beets,  per- 
haps one  and  one-half  inches  deep.  The  importance  of  very 
early  and  constant  cultivation  cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted 


110  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

on.  Beet  seed  may  be  sown  by  a  machine  seed  sower,  but 
most  of  the  sowers  in  use  will  need  a  little  more  careful  watch- 
ing- when  sowing  this  than  with  other  seeds,  as  the  rough  seeds 
(fruits)  are  liable  to  clog  the  feed  hole.  There  are  a  few  beet 
seed  sowing  machines  adapted  for  horse  power  that  it  will  prob- 
ably pay  one  to  use  where  a  large  amount  of  land  is  to  be 
cultivated  in  beets.  About  six  pounds  of  seed  are  required 
per  acre,  and  it  is  always  a  good  plan  to  sow  an  abundance 
•of  seed,  as  it  does  not  start  very  uniformly. 

Forcing  Beets. — Beets  are  easily  forced  by  sowing  the  early 
maturing  kinds  in  February  or  March  in  hotbeds,  where  they 
may  be  left  to  mature  or  may  be  transplanted  when  of  proper 
size.  It  is,  however,  best  to  allow  them  to  grow  to  table 
size  without  transplanting,  as  this  always  puts  the  plants 
back,  and  they  recover  from  it  slowly. 

Harvesting  and  Keeping  Beets. — On  the  approach  of  severe 
weather — in  this  section  about  the  middle  of  October — beets 
should  be  pulled  and  the  tops  cut  or  twisted  off.  but  the  top 
of  the  root  should  not  be  cut  off.  Light  frosts  do  not  hurt 
them  much,  especially  when  they  are  protected  with  a  heavy 
growth  of  foliage,  but  when  the  surface  of  the  ground  freezes 
hard  there  is  danger  of  permanent  injury  to  the  roots.  Beets 
are  easily  kept  in  a  cold  cellar.  It  is  generally  best  to  pit 
them  outdoors  when  dug,  to  remain  there  until  severe  weather 
.sets  in.  If  the  air  of  the  cellar  is  very  dry,  the  beets  should 
be  covered  with  earth  after  being  put  in  bins,  or  they  will  wilt 
and  become  corky.  Beet  seed  is  grown  by  planting  out  the 
roots  about  the  middle  of  May,  two  feet  apart  in  rows  three 
feet  apart.  The  seed  ripens  in  the  summer  and  is  generally 
threshed  off  as  soon  as  ripe. 

Varieties. — There  are  many  cultivated  varieties  of  beets, 
which  vary  considerably  in  size,  form,  color,  time  of  maturing 
and  other  characteristics.  Among  the  most  valuable  are  the 
iollowing: 

Eclipse. — A  very  early,  dark  red,  turnip-shaped  beet  of 
good  quality.  Valuable  for  early  or  late  sowing.  A  favorite 
with  market  gardeners. 

Egyptian, — Valuable  for  early  sowing. 

Bastian's  Early  Turnip  Beet.— A  valuable  early  sort, 


BEETS. 


Ill 


tender,  sweet  and  good  in  every  way:  valuable  for  early  or 
late  planting-. 

Dewing's  Improved  Blood  Turnip  Beet.— A  first-class 
beet  in  every  respect:  valuable  for  winter  or  summer  use. 

Diseases  of  Beets. — The  beet  is  subject  to  several  diseases, 
and  it  is  most  healthy  when  grown  on  new  land. 

Beet  Scab  is  a  disease  which  ruptures  the  skin  of  the 
beet  in  a  manner  similar  to  potato  scab  on  potatoes.  Recent 
investigations  show  that  the  form  of  this  disease  is  the  same 
as  the  potato  scab.  On  this  account,  beets  should  not  follow 
potatoes  on  land  that  has  grown  a  scabby  crop  unless  there  is 
an  interval  of  several  years  between  them.  Beets  are  some- 
times subject  to  a  rust  that  injures  the  foliage, but  seldom  very 
seriously. 

Stock  Beets.  Stock  beets  are  gross  feeders  and  prefer 
rich  soil.  They  require  the  same  care  as  table  beets,  but  the 
rows  should  be  thirty  inches  apart,  so  as  to  allow  of  cultiva- 
ting them  with  a  horse  implement.  The  seed  may  be  sown  with 
any  common  garden  seed  drill  after  first  laying  off  the  rows 
with  a  marker,  or  it  may  be  sown  with  a  common  grain  drill 
by  stopping  the  flow  of  seed  through  a  part  of  the  holes.  It  is 
a  very  good  plan  to  sow  radish  or  rutabaga  seed  with  the  beet 
seed,  as  it  starts  quickly  and  the  line  of  the  row  is  thus  easily 
seen,  so  that  cultivation  may  be  started  early.  This  is  very 
important  in  land  that  is  somewhat  weedy.  About  six  pounds 
of  seed  to  the  act'e  will   give    about  twelve  seeds  (fruits)  to  a 

foot. 

There  are  many  good  varie- 
ties of  stock  beets.  Among  the 
best  are  the  Long  Red,  Yellow, 
or  Golden  Tankard,  Yellow  Globe 
and  American  Sugar.  The  latter 
is  not  a  true  sugar  beet  but  is 
much  richer  in  sugar  than  the  or- 
dinary varieties  of  stock  beets 
and,  possibly,  of  better  feeding 
value. 

Sugar    Beets,    from    which    is 
Fig.  50.    Sugar  Beet.  made    a    large    amount    of   the 

sugar  of  commerce,  are  grown  in  a  similar  way  to  stock    beets 


112 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


but  on  a  large  scale  require  a  rather  different  and  special 
treatment.  There  is  no  trouble  about  raising  them  with  a 
large  percentage  of  sugar  in  any  of  the  northern  states,  but 
the  drawbacks  to  its  becoming  a  more  general  industry  are  the 
very  expensive  machinery  required  to  extract  the  sugar  econ- 
omically on  a  large  scale,  the  small  margin  of  profit  and  the 
low  price  the  manufacturers  have  been  willing  to  pay  for  the 
beets.  These  beets  grow  entirely  below  ground,  which  makes 
them  difficult  to  dig.  The  part  of  a  beet  above  ground  does 
not  contain  much  sugar. 

LEAF  BEET:  OR  SWISS  CHARD. 

Native  of  Southern  Europe. — Biennial. — This  appears  to 
be  exactly  the  same  plant  as  the 
beet  root,  except  that  in  its 
case  cultivation  has  developed 
the  leaves  instead  of  the  root. 
The  botanical  characteristics, es- 
pecially those  of  the  fruit  seed 
and  flowers,  are  precisely  alike 
in  both  plants.  The  root  is 
branched  and  not  very  fleshy, 
while  the  leaves  are  large  and 
numerous,  with  the  stalk  and 
midrib  fleshy  and  very  large. 
The  plants  vary  in  color  from 
deep  red  to  nearly  white.  The 
fleshy  leaf  stalks  are  cooked  and 
served  like  asparagus. 

Culture.     The  plants  are  grown 
Fig.  51.    Swiss  chard.  in  the  same  manner  as  the  com- 

mon table  beets.  Among  the  best  varieties  is  one  known  as  the 
Silvery  Swiss  chard. 


BRUSSELS  SPROUTS.     [Brassica  oleracea) . 

Native  of  Europe. — Biennial. — This  is  one  of  themany  va- 
riations which  the  cabbage  has  taken  on  under  cultivation.  In 
this  case,  where  the  head  of  the  cabbage  is  ordinarily  found, 
there  are  loose  green  leaves  and  seldom  a  head.  The  stem  is 
generally  two  feet  or  more  high,  with  leaves,  and  at  the  base 


BRUSSELS  SPROUTS  AND  CABBAGE. 


113 


of  each  leaf  is  a  small  cabbage,  which  seldom  attains  a  diam- 
eter of  over  two  inches.  These 
little  cabbages  are  the  parts 
eaten:  they  are  much  more 
delicate  than  the  commoncab- 
bage  and  highly  esteemed  by 
many.  The  plant  requires  the 
same  treatment  as  cabbage, 
exceptthe  plants  can  be  grown 
nearer  together.  While  eas- 
ily grown,  it  is  doubtful 
about  its  becoming  a  popular 
vegetable,  since  in  most  of  our 
markets  very  little  attention 
is  paid  to  quality,  and  the 
common  cabbage  will  proba- 
bly continue  to  take  the  place 

of  this  vegetable  on  most  tables.     The  variety  most  esteemed 

is  known  as  Dwarf  Brussels  Sprouts. 


Fig.  52.     Brussels  Sprouts. 


CABBAGE.     (Brassica  oleracea. ) 

Native  of  Europe  and  Western  Asia. — Biennial. — It  grows 
naturally  to  the  height  of  three  or  four  feet  and  scarcely  re- 
sembles any  of  our  cultivated  kinds.  The  part  eaten  is  termed 
the  head  and  is  simply  a  cluster  of  leaves  enwrapping  the  top 
of  the  stem.  It  attains  the  height  of  three  or  four  feet, 
when  it  goes  to  seed.  The  flowers  are  generally  yellow  in  col- 
or and  conspicuous,  though  not  large.  There  are  three  great 
groups  of  cabbages  distinguished  respectively  by  their  ( 1 )  red 
leaves,  (2)  smooth  leaves  and  (3)  wrinkled  leaves.  Red  cab- 
bages are  chiefly  esteemed  for  pickling.  The  varieties  with 
smooth,  light  green  leaves  (common  cabbage)  are  commonly 
cultivated,  while  the  Savoy  cabbage,  which  has  wrinkled  leaves 
and  is  of  the  best  quality,  is  little  grown,  as  it  does  not  pro- 
duce so  abundantly  as  the  common  kinds.  The  original  spe- 
cies from  which  the  cabbage  has  sprung  is  also  the  parent  of 
the  cauliflower,  kale  and  brussels  sprouts.  The  seed  of  the 
cabbage  is  dark  brown  in  color,  smooth  and  round. 

Soil.  The  best  soil  for  cabbage  is  a  rich  alluvial,  or  prai- 
rie loam,  moist,  yet  well  drained  and  in  fine  condition.     While 


114  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

some  varieties  will  mature  on  poor  soil,  they  all  require  the 
highest  cultivation  for  the  best  development.  This  is  especially 
true  of  early  cabbage,  which  needs  much  richer  soil  than  the 
late  crop.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  occasionally  change  the  land 
used  for  cabbage;  in  some  eastern  sections  it  is  necessary  to 
do  this  each  year  on  account  of  the  prevalence  of  the  disease 
called  club-root. 

Manure.  The  cabbage  is  a  gross  feeder  and  needs  lots  of 
rich  manure.  Most  of  our  best  growers  apply  manure  broad- 
cast, but  when  there  is  a  necessity  of  economizing  with  the 
manure,  it  may  be  applied  to  better  advantage  in  the  hill. pro- 


Fig.  53.      Cross  section  of  cabbage  head  showing  arrangement  of    stem 
and  leaves. 

viding  the  land  is  in  good  condition.  In  growing  eariy  cab- 
bage, it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  apply  a  handful  or  so  of  dry 
hen  manure  around  the  hills  when  the  plants  are  half  grown. 
This  should  not  be  put  close  to  the  plants  but  scattered  over  a 
radius  of  a  foot  or  more  from  the  plants  and  then  be  cultiva- 
ted into  the  soil. 

Early  Cabbage.  The  methods  of  cultivation  adapted  to  the 
growing  of  early  cabbage  are  quite  different  from  those  fol- 
lowed in  raising  late  cabbage,  and  the  subject  of  cultivation 
naturally  groups  itself  under  these  heads.     The  soil  preferred 


CABBAGE.  115 

for  early  cabbage  is  a  light. rich  sandy  loam. well  drained  and 
sloping-  to  the  south,  providing  it  is  not  too  liable  to  injury 
from  drouth.  In  milder  sections  of  the  country,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  sow  the  seed  for  early  cabbage  in  September  and 
winter  the  plants  over  in  cold  frames.  This  method  is  im- 
practicable in  most  Northern  states,  and  the  best  plan  to  fol- 
low in  such  sections  is  that  of  sowing  the  seed  in  greenhouses 
or  hotbeds  from  the  middle  to  the  last  of  February.  As  the 
plants  grow,  they  are  transplanted  so  as  not  to  be  crowded. 
If  they  are  kept  growing  freely,  they  will  be  large  enough  to 
transplant  to  the  open  ground  by  the  first  of  April. 

Hardening  off  the  Plants.  It  is  very  important  to  have  the 
plants  accustomed  to  cold  weather  when  they  are  transplanted 
to  the  open  ground,  or  they  may  be  killed  by  a  frost  that 
otherwise  would  do  them  no  harm.  When  cabbage  plants  are 
properly  hardened. they  take  on  a  dull  blue  color  that  at  once 
indicates  their  condition  to  oneacquainted  with  their  peculiar- 
ities. In  fact,  cabbage  plants  that  are  growing  rapidly  and 
are  consequently  very  soft,  may  be  killed  by  a  frost  that 
would  not  injure  so  tender  a  plant  as  the  tomato,  providing 
the  latter  has  been  properly  hardened  off.  This  hardening  off 
of  the  plants  is  accomplished  by  gradually  subjecting  them  to  a 
lower  temperature  than  that  in  which  they  grow  freely  or  by 
drying  them  a  little,  and.  finally,  thus  nearly  checking  their 
growth.  The  result  is  a  sort  of  ripening  up  of  the  tissues  of 
the  plants,  and, in  consequence, they  will  stand  great  hardship. 

Setting  the  Plants.  Cabbage  plants  will  grow  at  a  low  tem- 
perature, and  it  is  a  great  advantage  to  plant  them  out  early 
in  the  spring,  although  the  weather  may  be  damp  and  cold.  At 
this  season  of  the  year,  they  may  not  show  any  great  increase 
in  leaf  surface,  but  they  form  roots  rapidly,  and  these  are  a 
great  help  in  providing  a  vigorous  growth  later  in  the  season. 
As  a  rule,  early  cabbage  should  be  set  out  as  soon  as  frost  is 
out  in  the  spring  and  the  ground  nicely  settled.  It  is  import- 
ant to  set  the  plants  deep  in  the  ground  at  this  season,  and  since 
the  stem  is  the  part  most  liable  to  injury  from  hard  frosts,  it 
should  be  set  deep  enough  to  bring  the  base  of  the  leaves  be- 
low the  ground.  This  is  very  important  and  frequently  makes 
the  difference  between  success  and  failure  in  growing  the 
crop.     If  severe  weather  is  threatened  after  the  plants  are  set 


116  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

out.  it  is  a  good  plan  to  draw  a  hoe-ful  of  earth  over  each 
plant,  for  if  frozen  when  they  are  covered  with  earth  they  will 
not  be  injured,  and  they  can  remain  buried  in  the  ground  several 
days  in  cold  weather  without  serious  injury.  However, 
the  earth  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  good  weather  is  as- 
sured. The  distance  between  the  plants  will  depend  somewhat 
on  the  varieties  to  be  cultivated;  under  ordinary  conditions 
large, early  kinds  should  be  set  out  two  feet  apart  in  rows  three 
feet  apart.  This  arrangement  permits  of  horse  cultivation 
both  ways  when  the  plants  are  young  and  one  way  when  they 
are  full  grown. 

Cultivation  should  commence  as  soon  as  the  plants  can  be 
clearly  seen  and  be  continued  after  each  rain,  at  least  once  a 
week,  until  the  crop  is  grown.  For  this  purpose,  a  fine-tooth 
horse  cultivator  is  the  most  desirable  implement,  and  if  the 
work  is  carefully  done  there  will  be  very  little  need  of  hand 
hoeing.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  draw  the  earth  slightly  toward 
the  plants  when  they  are  about  half  grown. 

Harvesting  the  Crop. — Treated  in  this  way,  under  ordinary 
conditions,  they  will  be  nicely  "headed  up"  by  the  first  of 
July  and  ready  for  marketing.  The  season  of  marketing, 
however,  will  depend  largely  on  the  kinds  grown.  If  the  land 
is  at  once  plowed  when  the  crop  is  harvested,  it  can  be  used 
for  growing  some  late  crop,  as  late  beans,  spinach  or  celery. 
By  care  in  sowing  and  the  selection  of  varieties,  early  cab- 
bage may  be  continued  till  late  cabbage  is  in  the  market. 

Retarding  the  heading  of  cabbages  may  be  accomplished 
by  starting  the  roots  on  one  side  of  the  head  or  by  slightly 
pulling  the  plant  so  as  to  break  some  of  the  roots.  This  is 
very  important  some  seasons,  as  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find 
the  market  overstocked  with  this  vegetable  just  as  the  crop  is 
full  grown,  and  if  the  plants  are  allowed  to  remain  growing 
when  once  a  hard  head  is  formed  they  are  very  sure  to  burst 
and  be  spoiled.  By  starting  the  roots  a  little,  the  growth  is 
checked  and  heads  may  be  kept  from  spoiling  for  a  week  or 
more. 

Late  cabbage  is  a  term  generally  given  to  cabbage  grown 
from  seed  sown  in  the  open  ground.  It  may  be  ready  for  use 
in  September  or  in  the  late  autumn  and  be  kept  all  winter. 

Soil.    Any  land  that  will  produce  a  good  crop  of  corn  is 


CABBAGE.  117 

in  good  condition  for  late  cabbage,  but  the  richer  the  land  the 
better  the  chances  of  success.  Less  manure  is  required  for 
late  than  for  early  cabbage.  Late  cabbage  is  generally  raised 
by  sowing  the  seed  in  the  hills,  or  by  sowing  it  in  a  seed  bed 
and  setting  the  plants  in  the  field  when  of  sufficient  size.  Each 
of  these  methods  has  its  advantages  and  will  be  referred 
to  separately  further  on. 

Sowing  Cabbage  Seed.  Late  cabbage  is  raised  by  sowing 
the  seed  in  a  seedbed,  in  rows  twelve  inches  apart,  in  the 
spring,  and  when  the  plants  are  large  enough  transplanting 
to  the  field  where  they  are  to  be  grown.  This  is  the  common 
way  of  growing  cabbage.  Its  advantages  are  that  the  plants 
may  be  set  out  on  land  that  has  grown  some  early  crop,  as 
peas,  or  on  sod  land  after  cutting  the  hay.  It  also  ensures 
having  the  plants  all  together  in  a  small  space,  where  they  can 
be  easily  cultivated  and  guarded  when  they  are  young  and 
most  liable  to  serious  injury  from  cut  worms,  flea  beetles  and 
other  insects  and  from  dry  weather.  It  has  the  disadvantage 
of  requiring  the  plants  to  be  moved  during  the  dry  weather  of 
early  summer,  when  they  are  very  liable  to  fail  from  lack  of 
water  in  the  soil.  Sowing  the  seed  of  cabbage  in  the  field 
where  the  plants  are  to  mature  and  then  thinning  out  to  one 
plant  to  a  hill,  has  the  advantage  of  not  requiring  trans- 
planting of  the  crop  during  dry  weather,  and  as  the  plants  are 
not  set  back  by  transplanting  they  mature  in  a  shorter  time 
than  transplanted  plants.  This  makes  it  practicable  to  sow 
the  seed  later  than  when  the  plants  are  to  be  removed  and  is 
sometimes  an  advantage.  It  has  the  disadvantage,  however, 
of  having  the  plants  scattered  over  a  large  area  when  small 
and  liable  to  serious  insect  enemies,  and  makes  it  more  diffi- 
cult to  cultivate  them  than  when  in  a  seed  bed.  The  thinnings 
from  the  land  where  seed  is  sown  in  the  hill  may  be  set  else- 
where. 

Raising  Cabbage  by  Transplanting.  If  the  plants  are  to  be 
raised  in  a  seedbed  and  then  transplanted  to  the  open  ground, 
the. seed  of  such  varieties  as  Late  Flat  Dutch  should  be  sown 
about  the  10th  of  May;  but  if  Fotler's  Improved  Brunswick  or 
other  second  early  kind  is  to  be  grown,  the  seed  should  not  be 
sown  until  at  least  ten  days  later:  and  such  large,  early  head- 
ing varieties    as  Early  Summer    may  be    successfully    raised 


118  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

when  seed  is  sown  as  late  as  the  first  of  June.  The  plants  will 
be  ready  to  set  out  by  the  last  of  June,  when  they  should  be 
carefully  transplanted.  The  land  should  be  thoroughly  pul- 
verized and  marked  out  three  feet  apart  each  way,  unless  it  is 
to  be  manured  in  the  hills,  when  it  should  be  furrowed  out  one 
way  and  marked  the  other  way.  The  plants  should  be  set  at 
the  intersections  of  the  marks,  but  it  is  not  a  good  plan  to  set 
them  on  top  of  the  manure,  but  rather  to  put  them  on  the  side  of 
it.  This  is  especially  important  if  the  manure  is  not  well 
rotted.  The  cultivation  and  after  treatment  are  the  same  as 
for  early  cabbage. 

Cabbage  from  Seed  Sown  in  the  Hill.  If  the  seed  is  to  be  sown 
in  the  hills,  the  land  should  be  treated  as  recommended  when 
the  plants  are  to  be  transplanted.  It  is  generally  necessary 
for  success  to  have  the  soil  moist  when  the  seed  is  sown.  After 
the  land  is  marked  out,  seven  or  eight  seeds  are  sown  at  each 
intersections  covered  with  about  half  an  inch  of  soil  and 
pressed  down  with  the  sole  of  the  foot.  The  plants  generally 
come  up  inside  of  a  week  and  should  be  hand-hoed  at  once, 
and  when  large  enough  cultivated  with  a  horse.  When  big 
enough  to  stand  alone,  take  out  all  but  one  plant  from  each 
hill  and  treat  as  directed  for  those  that  ha  vebeen  transplanted. 

Harvesting  Late  Cabbage  may  be  done  by  selling  directly 
from  the  field  or  by  storing  for  marketing  during  the  winter. 
If  the  heads  are  nearly  ready  to  burst,  they  cannot  be  kept 
long  and  should  be  disposed  of  at  once.  There  is  generally  a 
good  demand  in  the  late  autumn  for  this  vegetable  for  general 
marketing  and  also  by  the  pickling  factories  for  making 
sauer  kraut.  Cabbages  will  stand  ten  degrees  or  more  of 
frost,  but  severe  freezing  is  very  injurious;  they  are  seldom 
injured  by  frost  unless  the  stump  is  frozen  solid.  If  there  is 
danger  of  severe  freezing  before  the  crop  can  be  marketed  or 
stored,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  pull  the  plants  and  put  them  into 
piles,  with  the  stumps  inside,  and  cover  the  whole  with  straw 
litter.  Piled  and  covered  in  this  way,  they  may  be  left  in  the 
field  until  severe  freezing  weather  and  will  generally  be  safe 
in  such  a  condition  in  this  section  until  the  first  of  Decem- 
ber. At  harvesting  there  may  be  some  heads  quite  too  loose 
for  marketing,  and  such  cabbage  will  improve  very  much  if 
stored  as  recommended  for  seed  cabbage. 


CABBAGE. 


119 


Storing  Cabbage.  In  order  to  have  cabbage  keep  well  far 
into  the  winter,  they  must  not  be  headed  very  solid  when 
gathered  but  should  be  a  trifle  soft,  but  there  is  quite  a  differ- 
ence in  the  keeping*  qualities  of  varieties.  If  late  varieties  are 
sown  too  early,  they  will  not  keep  well,  and  if  early  varieties 
are  sown  late  so  as  to  be  in  good  keeping  condition  when  har- 
vested they  often  keep  well.  In  order  to  store  cabbages  suc- 
cessfully, they  must  be  kept  cold  and  moist  but  never  allowed 
to  get  warm  or  wet.  Providing  the  cabbage  is  in  good  condi- 
tion for  storing,  it  will  generally  keep  until  spring  if  the  heads 


Fij?.  54.     Cabbage  pitted  for  winter  storing. 

are  set  together,  roots  up.  in  a  trench  and  covered  with  from 
six  inches  to  a  foot  of  soil  and  mulch  enough  to  prevent  hard 
freezing.  If  they  are  frozen  while  buried  and  thawed  out  in 
the  ground,  they  are  seldom  seriously  injured.  In  this  sec- 
tion, however,  a  better  plan  is  to  keep  them  in  a  cold,  damp 
cellar,  stored  in  bins  about  four  feet  wide,  so  as  to  allow  a 
a  circulation  of  air  through  them.  For  commercial  purposes, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  build  store  houses,  half  in  and  half  out 
of  the  ground:  in  a  small  way.  they  may  be  kept  by  burying 
the  heads  in  sand  in  a  cellar,  or  a  small  stock  of  cabbage 
for  home  use,  may  be  heeled  in  by  the  roots  in  the  cellar — 
but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  decaying  cabbage  is  dan- 
gerous material  to  have  under  a  dwelling  house,  and  it  should 
not  be  permitted  under  any  circumstances.  In  storing  cab- 
bage, the  loose  outside  leaves  should  be  removed  and  the 
stumps  always  left  on,  except  when  they  are  to  be  stored 
in  bins. 

Cabbage  Seed  is  a  somewhat  difficult  crop  to  raise  in  this 
section,  the  trouble  being  in  keeping  the  plants  over  winter. 
However,  it  may  be  done   if  care  is  used.     Fcr  this  purpose, 


120  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

heads  should  not  be  permitted  to  get  very  hard:  they  should 


Fig.  55.     Seed  cabbages  pitted  for  winter. 
be  gathered   before    the    stumps    have    been    frozen,    set  to- 
gether heads  up  in  a  trench  and  covered  with  about  a  foot  of 

soil  and  mulching  enough 
to  prevent  severe  freezing. 
Cabbage  seed  may  be 
raised  from  the  stumps  af- 
ter the  heads  are  cut  off, 
and  this  is  a  very  simple 
matter,  as  the  stumps  can 
be  buried  like  turnips  or 
even  kept  in  bins,  provid- 
ing they  are  covered  with 
earth  and  kept  cold:  but 
such  seed  is  not  desirable, 
as  the  evidence  seems  to 
show  that  there  is  a  ten- 
dency to  increase  the  length 
of  the  stump  at  the  expense 
of  the  head  under  such 
treatment.  It  is  generally 
agreed  among  our  best  seed 
growers  that  cabbage  seed 
should  be  saved  from  the 
terminal  buds  of  the  stem, 
which   are  in  the  cabbage 

^.     r.    ™         r  ,     .  nl       head.     Providing  the  seed 

Fig.  56.    Part  of    cabbage    seed    stalk 
showing  seed  pods.  (After  Landreth. )        cabbage     are     successfully 

wintered  over,  they  should  be  planted   about  the  first  of  May 


CABBAGE. 


121 


Figure  57.    Early  Wmningstadt  cabbage. 


in  deep  furrows  about  three  feet  apart,  in  rows  four  feet  apart. 
Sometimes  the  seed  stalkcannot  burst  through  the  head  leaves, 

and  it  is  a  good  plan 
in  such  cases  to  cut 
through  the  outside 
leaves  on  the  top  of  the 
head  a  little  to  allow  it 
to  grow  through.  The 
seed  is  gathered  branch 
by  branch  as  the  pods 
begin  to  turn  yellow, 
and  it  generally  takes 
several  cuttings  to  har- 
vest the  seed  pods. 
These  are  dried  in  buildings  having  tight  floors  and  then 
threshed  out. 

Varieties.  For  very  early  use  the  Early  Jersey  Wakefield  is 
perhaps  the  most  popular  variety,  but  the  head  is  quite  small.  For 
second  early  the  Early  Summer  is  perhaps  the  best  and  is 
generally  more  profitable  than  other  early  kinds,  since  the 
head  is  of  good  size.  The  Early  Winningstadt  is  a  very  desir- 
able variety,  forming  very  solid  heads.  It  is  the  most  reli- 
able of  all  varieties  for  early  or  late  use  in  unfavorable  situ- 
ations. Fotler's  Improved  Brunswick  is  a  valuable  variety 
for  second  early  or  as  a  winter  variety,  and  it  is  the  earliest 
of  the  large  heading  kinds. 

Flat  Dutch  and  Stone  Mason  are  desirable  winter  sorts  and 
are  good  keepers.  The  best  red  cabbage  is  perhaps  the  Mammoth 
Red  Rock.  The  Savoys  are 
of  better  quality  than  the  or- 
dinary drumheads  but  do  not 
jn'oduce  so  heavily.  They 
are  desirable  for  home  use. 
The  best  of  this  class  is  the 
American  Drumhead    Savoy. 

Insects.     The    insects  inju- 
rious   to  the  cabbage  are  the 
flea  beetle. cabbage  worms,  cut  Fig. 58.-Premium Flat  Dutch  Cabbage. 
worms  and  lice,  for  treatment  of  which  see  chapter  on  insects. 

Diseases.     There  are  very  few  diseases  that  seriously  injure 


122  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

the  cabbage.  The  most  common  is  club-root,  also  called  club- 
foot. The  life  history  of  this  disease  is  not  known.  It  at- 
tacks the  roots  of  cabbage,  cauliflower,  turnips  and  other 
plants  of  the  same  family,  causing  them  to  form  large  irregu- 
lar swellings.  The  plant  is  checked  in  growth  and  often  dies 
from  the  effects  of  the  disease.  This  is  not  yet  a  common 
disease  in  this  section,  but  in  some  of  the  Eastern  and  Middle 
states  it  is  very  common.  The  best  way  of  avoiding  it  is  to 
not  use  the  same  land  for  cabbage  or  similar  crop  without  at 
least  three  years  intervening,  during  which  time  it  is  prefer- 
able to  have  the  land  in  grass  or  clover. 

Sauer  Kraut.  The  following  recipe  is  a  very  excellent 
one:  Slice  cabbage  fine  on  a  slaw-cutter;  line  the  bottom  and 
sides  of  an  oaken  barrel  or  keg  with  cabbage  leaves,  put  in 
a  layer  of  the  sliced  cabbage  about  six  inches  in  depth,  sprinkle 
lightly  with  salt,  and  pound  with  a  wooden  beetle  until  the 
cabbage  is  a  compact  mass;  add  another  layer  of  cabbage, 
etc..  repeating  the  operation,  pounding  well  each  layer  until 
the  barrel  is  full  to  within  six  inches  of  the  top:  cover  with 
leaves,  then  a  cloth,  next  a  board  cut  to  fit  loosely  on  the  in- 
side of  barrel,  kept  well  down  with  a  heavy  weight.  If  the 
brine  has  not  raised  within  two  days,  add  enough  water  with 
just  salt  enough  to  taste  to  cover  the  cabbage;  examine  every 
two  days  and  add  water  as  before,  until  brine  rises  and  scum 
forms,  then  lift  off  the  cloth  carefully  so  the  scum  may  adhere, 
wash  well  in  several  cold  waters,  wring  dry  and  replace,  re- 
peating this  operation  as  the  scum  arises,  at  first  every  other 
da j'.  and  then  once  a  week,  until  the  acetous  fermentation 
ceases,  which  will  take  three  to  six  weeks.  Up  to  this  time 
keep  warm  in  the  kitchen,  then  remove  to  a  dry.  good  cellar 
unless  made  early  in  'the  fall,  when  it  may  be  at  once  set  in 
the  pantry  or  cellar.  One  pint  of  salt  to  a  full  barrel  of  cab- 
bage is  a  good  proportion;  some  also  sprinkle  in  whole  black 
pepper.  Or.  to  keep  until  summer:  In  April  squeeze  out  of 
brine  and  pack  tightly  with  the  hands  in  a  stone  jar,  with 
the  bottom  lightly  sprinkled  with  salt;  make  brine  enough  to 
well  cover  the  kraut  in  the  proportion  of  a  tablespoon  of  salt 
to  a  quart  of  water;  boil,  skim,  cool  and  pour  over;  cover 
with  cloth,  then  a  plate,  weight  and  another  cloth  tied  closely 
down:  keep    in    a   cool   place,  and    it  will  be  good  in  June. 


CARROT. 


123 


Neither  pound  nor  salt  the  cabbage  too  much,  watch  closely, 
and  keep  clear  from  scum  for  good  sauer  kraut. — Buckeye  Cook 
Book. 

CARROT.  ( Daiicus  carota. ) 
Native  of  Europe.— Biennial. — In  the  wild  state  this  rootis 
valueless,  being  slender  and  woody,  and  the  plant  is  a  bad 
weed.  Under  cultivation  it  exhibits  the  widest  difference  in 
shape,  size  and  color.  Some  kinds  have  roots  that  are  broad- 
er than  long  and  extend  not  over  two  or  three  inches  in  the 
ground,  while  others  attain  a  length  of  two  feet,  and  still  oth- 
ers may  be  found  having 
the  various  intermediate 
forms  between  these  ex- 
tremes. There  are  also 
varieties  having  red, 
white  and  yellow  flesh. 
The  ] eaves  are  very  much 
divided  and  deeply  cut. 
The  flowers  are  white 
and  crowded  together  in 
compound  umbels  on 
stalks  two  to  five  feet 
high.  The  roots  of  the 
cultivated  kind  will 
stand  considerable  frost 
but  not  severe  freezing. 
Two  seeds  are  produced 
by  each  flower;  they  are 
flat  on  one  side  and  con- 
vex on  the  other,  and 
are  partly  covered  by 
minute  bristles.  When  sold,  the  bristles  have  generally  been 
removed.  Carrots  are  used  to  some  extent  as  a  table  vege- 
table, but  they  are  especially  valuable  as  a  food  for  horses 
and  other  stock. 

Cultivation.  The  carrot  is  of  the  easiest  culture.  It  re- 
quires a  fine,  yellow,  rich,  upland  soil.  On  moist  soils,  the 
roots  are  apt  to  branch  and  somewhat  liable  to  disease.  The 
seedlings  are  quite  delicata  when  they  first  come  up.  and  every 
precaution  should  be  taken  to  have  the  land  clean,  so  that  the 


Fig.  59.     Carrot  phint  in  flower. 


124  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

small  seedling's  will  not  be  overrun  with  weeds;  the  sur- 
face soil  should  be  kept  loose  and  mellow  throughout  the  sea- 
son. It  is  a  good  plan  to  sow  a  few  radish  seeds  with  the  car- 
rot seed,  so  that  cultivation  may  be  commenced  early,  as  the- 
latter  start  slowly.  The  seed  of  the  small  kinds  should  be 
sown  very  early  in  the  spring  and  will  produce  roots  big 
enough  for  table  use  by  early  summer:  but  for  the  main  crop 
the  seed  should  be  sown  about  the  middle  of  May  in  rows  four- 
teen inches  apart.  A  fair  crop  may  be  expected,  even  if  the 
seed  is  not  sown  until  the  middle  of  June,  although  the  dry 
weather  which  generally  prevails  at  that  time  of  the 
year  is  liable  to  prevent  or  retard  the  germination  of  the  seed 
or  to  burn  up  the  seedlings  just  as  they  are  pushing  out  of  the 
ground.  The  crop  is  sometimes  sown  in  rows  two  feet  apart 
and  cultivated  with  a  horse  implement.  If  the  seed  is  good, 
two  pounds  per  acre,  or  about  ten  seeds  to  the  foot  of  row,  is 
plenty  to  sow.  Very  thick  seeding  is  not  desirable,  as  the 
cost  of  thinning  in  such  a  case  is  considerable.  It  is  bast  for 
the  experienced  grower  to  have  all  the  conditions  right  and 
then  sow  the  seed  so  that  little,  if  any,  weeding  will  be  neces- 
sary. The  beginner  will  be  very  likely  find  it  safest  to  sow  a 
large  amount  of  seed,  perhaps  three  pounds  per  acre, and  thin 
out  so  that  the  plants  will  stand  three  inches  apart  in  the  row; 
The  richer  the  soil,  the  more  room  the  roots  require  in  the  row: 
if  small  roots  are  wanted,  they  may  be  left  an  inch  apart 
in  the  row. 

Gathering.  One  of  the  greatest  outlays  in  raising  carrots 
is  in  gathering  and  topping  the  crop.  This  work  may  be  done 
by  hand,  but  hand  labor  is  very  costly.  Some  growers  go 
over  the  rows  and  cut  the  tops  off  with  a  sharp  hand  hoe.  but 
generally  they  are  topped  by  hand  after  being  plowed  out.  If 
the  tops  of  the  roots  are  cut  off  a  little,  no  harm  is  done,  as  it 
does  not  increase  the  liability  to  rot  as  is  the  case  with  beets. 
The  roots  are.  perhaps,  dug  most  easily  by  plowing  close  to 
each  row  and  then  pulling  the  roots  out  by  hand.  For  this 
purpose  a  subsoil  plow  is  best,  but  any  good  plow  will  answer 
the  purpose  fairly  well.  If  some  short  rooted  variety  is  grown 
and  the  land  is  mellow,  the  plow  may  often  be  run  so  as  to  turn 
the  roots  out  on  top  of  the  furrow  slice,  which  is  a  most  con- 
venient way  of  gathering  them. 


CARROT. 


121 


Fig.  (i).— Harvesting  Ion;?  carrots  and  parsnips  by  plowing  the   earth   away 
on  one  side,  and  then  pulling  the  roots  by  hand. 

Shoring.  Carrots  are  easily  kept  over  winter  in  cellars, 
providing  they  are  in  a  temperature  near  the  freezing  point 
and  are  not  too  ripe  when  dug.  If  the  seed  has  been  planted 
too  early,  the  roots  will  ripen  up  early  in  the  fall  and  will 
cease  to  grow,  and  many  of  the  leaves  will  turn  yellow.  Such 
roots  do  not  keep  well,  but  are  liable  to  sprout  badly  long  be- 
fore spring,  even  if  kept  cold.  To  have  the  roots  keep  best, 
they  should  be  growing  rapidly  when  dug.  In  dry  cellars,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  cover  with  loam  or  sand  to  prevent  those 
on  top  of  the  bin  or  pile  from  wilting.  If  they  are  to  be  fed 
early  in  the  winter,  they  may  be  piled  in  the  barn  and  covered 
with  chaff  and  straw  sufficient  to  keep  out  the  frost. 

Carrot  seed  is  raised  by  planting  out  the  roots  in  the  spring, 
about  two  feet  apart,  in  rows  four  feet  apart.  The  seed  heads 
ripen  irregularly  and  are  gathered  as  they  ripen  and  threshed 
when  dry.  Theseed  is  generally  rubbed  against  a  sieve  having  a 
fine  mesh  to  take  the  bristles  off.  otherwise  it  would  be  a 
difficult  matter  to  sow  it  in  a  machine. 

Forcing  carrots  is  carried  on  to  a  limited  extent,  for  which 
purpose  they  may  be  sown  between  rows  of  radishes  in  the 
hotbed  or  greenhouse. 

Varieties.  For  very  early  table  use  the  Short  Scarlet  is  best. 
For  general  use  in  summer  and  for  winter  use.  perhaps  there 
is   no    better   variety  than   the    Danvers.     The  Guerande Half 


126  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

Long,  or  Oxheart.  is  a  variety  that  is  very  thick  and 
.short  and  yields  nearly  as  much  as  the  Dan  vers.  It  has  the 
.advantage,  moreover,  of  being  easily  pulled  by  hand  without 
any    digging.     The  White    Belgian    is  a    large   cropper,  but 


lTig.  61.— Varieties  of  Carrots.  1.— White  Belgian.  2.—  Long  Orange.  3.— 
Orange  Danvers.  4.— Ox-Heart.  5.— Pointed-Rooted.  6.— Blunt-Rooted 
Horn.     7.— Extra  Early  Forcing.     (After  Landreth..) 

only  of  value  as  food  for  stock.     Thirty  tons  of  carrots  are 

.sometimes  raised  on  one  acre,  but  in  ordinary  practice  seldom 

more  than  half  that  amount  are  raised. 

CAULIFLOWER.    ( Brastica  oleracea. ) 

Native  of  Europe. — Biennial.— Cauliflower  is   a  form   of 

-cabbage   in   which  the    inflorescence   becomes  fleshy  and  dis- 


CAULIFLOWER. 


127 


'ig.  (52.— Snowball  eauliflowe 


torted.  It  is. 
however,  con- 
sidered much 
more  delicate 
than  cabbage 
and  brings  a 
higher  price. 
It  is  grown  in 
much  the  same 
manner  as  cab- 
b  a  g  e :  the 
plants,  howev- 
er, are  not  so 
hardy  in  resist- 
ing cold  weath- 
er as  cabbage, 
are  more  sensi- 
tive to  adverse 
conditions  and 


should  have  more  man- 
urein the  soil.  As  soon 
as  the  head  commences 
to  form,  the  outside 
leaves  of  the  plantshonld 
be  drawn  together  over 
the  head  so  as  to  keep 
the  sunlight  away  from 
it.  Treated  in  this  way. 
the  heads  will  be  nearly 
snow  white:  if  not  pro- 
tected, they  become 
brown  in  color  and  are 
not  as  salable.  The 
crop  ripens  somewhat 
irregularly.  When  dan- 
ger of  hard  frost  is  appa- 
rent, the  immature  heads 

qhrmlrl  hp  miller]  with  F'LS-  63.— Cauliflower  plant  with  leaves  tied  to- 
teiiuuiu  uc  puiieu  wiwi  aether  to  keep  the  sunlight  off  the  head, 
roots  and  leaves  and  This  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  head 
-,  ,       ,     ,  .  can  be  seen,  and  the  leaves  should  remain 

De      planted     out    in«na        tied  until  the  head  is  cut  out. 


128  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

cold  cellar  or  cold  frame,  where  many  of  them  will  form  good 
salable  heads.  The  insect  enemies  are  the  same  as  those  of 
the  cabbage. 

Varieties.  There  are  many  varieties,  but.  perhaps,  the  most 
desirable  are  the  Snowball  and  the  Early  Dwarf  Erfurt. 

CELERY.   (Apium  graveolens. ) 

Native  of  Europe. — Biennial. — The  plants  are  grown  for 
the  fleshy  leaf  stalks,  which  are  very  tender  when  blanched: 
one  form  is  also  grown  for  the  large  fleshy  roots.  The  whole 
plant  has  a  pleasant  aromatic  flavor.  The  seed-stalks  are 
branching  and  grow  from  two  to  three  feet  high,  and  have  very 
small  yellowish  or  greenish  flowers  in  umbels.  The  seed  is 
small,  triangular  and  five-ribbed,  having  the  characteristic 
aromatic  flavor  of  the  plant  very  pronounced. 

Celery  is  a  crop  that  is  very  liable  to  suffer  from  the  want 
of  rich  nitrogenous  manures  and  from  a  superabundance  of 
or  a  lack  of  moisture  in  the  soil.  On  this  account  it  should 
be  grown  on  retentive,  yet  well  drained,  rich  land.  Well 
drained  bog  land  with  the  water  about  eighteen  inches  from 
the  surface  is  often  excellent  for  this  purpose. 

Early  Celery.  The  seed  for  early  celery  is  generally  sown 
the  latter  part  of  February  or  early  in  March  in  boxes  in  a 
greenhouse.  As  soon  as  the  plants  are  of  sufficient  size  to 
handle,  they  are  pricked  out  into  other  boxes  or  into  hotbeds, 
where  they  remain  until  large  enough  for  planting  out,  which 
is  sometime  in  May.  The  tops  of  the  plants  should  be  sheared 
off  once  before  they  are  pricked  out  and  again  before  they  are 
planted  to  the  open  ground,  as  this  makes  them  stocky  and 
helps  them  to  recover  from  transplanting.  If  the  leaves  are 
all  left  on  the  plants  when  they  are  set  out,  they  generally  dry 
up  and  in  so  doing  take  away  much  moisture  from  the  root. 
The  plants  should  be  hardened  off  before  being  set  out.  Early 
celery  should  be  bleached  by  being  covered  with  boards  or  with 
boards  and  straw,  since  the  ordinary  way  of  bleaching  it  by 
banking  with  earth  is  liable  to  bring  on  disease  in  warm 
weather. 

Late  Celery.  The  greatest  demand  for  celery  is  during  the 
autumn  and  winter  months,  and  very  little  is  marketed  during 
the  summer.     The  seed  for  autumn  and  winter  celery  is  gener- 


CELERY.  129 

ally  sown  in  April  in  the  open  ground,  although  some  of  our 
best  growers  sow  the  seed  in  hotbeds  or  cold  frames  early  in 
April,  before  the  land   outdoors  can  be  worked  at  all.     If  the 


Fig.  64.— Celery  plants.  Those  on  left  have  been  transplanted  and  show  in 
consequence  an  improved  root  system  for  planting  out.  Those  on  right 
were  only  grown  in  seed  bed  without  transplanting  and  have  not  as  good 
roots  for  planting  out.  The  plants  with  tops  trimmed  are  ready  for 
planting  out. 

seed  is   sown  outside,    a  piece  of    fine  rich  land    is  generally 

selected.     The  seed  is  sown  in  drills  about  nine  inches  apart 

and  one-quarter  inch  deep,  and  the  soil  is  well  firmed  over  it 

after  covering.    Some  growers  do  not  cover  celery  seed  at  all, 


130 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


except  by  rolling  or  patting  it  down  with  the  back  of  a  spade. 
If  there  is  danger  of  the  seed  drying  out,  some  growers  shade 
the  bed  with  cotton  cloth  or  with  a  lath  screen  raised  about 
one  foot  from  the  ground  and  so  made  as  to  keep  off  about 
one-half  the  sunlight.  Another  plan  is  to  cover  the  bed  with 
burlap  after  sowing  the  seed  and  water  the  seed  through  it: 
in  this  latter  case,  however,  it  is  very  important  to  watch 
carefully  and  remove  the  cloth  covering  as  soon  as  the  plants 
appear.     The  seed  germinates  slowly.  The  seedlings  are  quite 

weak  and  should  re- 
ceive almost  constant 
cultivation.  The  top 
should  be  sheared  off 
once  or  twice,  as  re- 
commended for  early 
celery,  to  make  the 
plants  stocky;  they 
should  also  be  thinned 
out  so  that  there  will 
forty  or  fifty  plants  to  the  foot  of 
sufficiently  large,  they  should  be 
the  field  where  they  are  to  grow. 
this  way.  the  plants  will  be  strong 
if  left  to  crowd  one  another,  they 
will  be  weak  and  poor.  Some  suc- 
ers  prefer  to  transplant  once  to 
before  setting  in  the  field  where  the 
mature.  This  makes  the  final  trans- 
-White  most  certain  by  increasing  the  fi- 
brous roots  Plume  celery.  \yUi  [s  not  generally  necessary,  al- 
though   a   good   plan    under   unfavorable   conditions. 

Planting.  Having  good  plants,  the  next  thing  is  to  set  them 
so  as  to  get  a  good  crop.  It  is  quite  a  common  practice  in 
some  sections  to  grow  celery  as  a  second  crop  after  early  peas, 
lettuce,  cabbage  or  beets.  In  such  a  case  the  plants,  perhaps, 
had  better  not  be  set  out  until  the  first  crop  has  been  gathered; 
but  where  only  one  crop  is  to  be  grown  the  plants  may  be  set 
as  soon  as  big  enough,  provided  the  land  is  ready.  This  will 
generally  be  the  latter  part  of  June  or  the  first  of  July  and  for 
latest   use   the    latter    part    of   July.       The    land    should   be 


be  not  o^v 
row.  When 
moved  to 
Treated  in 
and  stocky: 
p  r  o  b  a  b  1  y 
cessful  grow 
narrow  rows 
crop  is  to 
planting  Fig. 


65. 


CELERY.  131 

thoroughly  plowed,  harrowed  and  smoothed  off.  Furrows 
should  then  be  made  where  the  plants  are  to  go,  about  six 
inches  deep,  in  which  about  three  inches  of  fine,  well-rotted 
manure  or  compost  should  be  placed.  This  manure  should 
be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil,  and  the  furrow  nearly 
filled.  For  mixing  the  manure  and  soil,  perhaps  there  is  no 
better  implement  than  a  one  horse  cultivator  with  the  teeth 
set  close  together.  If  the  land  is  unusually  rich  in  plant  food, 
there  is  no  need  of  going  to  this  trouble,  but  the  plants  may 
be  set  right  after  the  marker.  In  any  case,  the  plants  should 
be  four  or  five  feet  apart  for  the  common  kinds  that  have  to 
be  bleached  by  "banking  up  with  earth,"  but  the  self-bleach- 
ing kinds  can  be  managed  in  rows  three  feet  apart. 

Before  the- plants  are  dug  from  the  seed  bed,  it  should  be 
thoroughly  soaked  with  water.  The  plants  should  have  the 
tops  and  roots  partly  cut  off  and  the  roots  dipped  in  water. 
The  place  where  they  are  to  be  planted  should  be  moist,  and 
every  precaution  taken  to  prevent  the  plants  drying  out  when 
they  are  being  moved.  Special  attention  should  be  given  to 
planting  on  freshly  plowed  land  and  to  firming  the  soil  around 
the  roots.  The  plants  should  be  set  six  inches  apart,  after 
stretching  a  line  for  marking  out  to  get  the  rows  straight.  If 
the  land  is  dry,  it  must  be  watered  before  it  is  safe  to  set  out 
celery  plants,  and  if  the  weather  is  dry  the  plants  must  also 
be  shaded  from  the  sun.  This  shade  may  be  given  by  cover- 
ing the  plants  with  finely  cut  grass.  The  ground  should  be  kept 
clean  and  mellow  between  the  plants  with  a  horse  cultivator 
throughout  the  season. 

If,  while  the  crop  is  growing,  it  is  thought  the  plants  re- 
quire more  food,  it  may  be  supplied  by  plowing  a  shallow 
furrow  away  from  them  on  one  side  and  putting  in  fine  well- 
rotted  stable  manure,  hen  manure  or  compost  and  covering  it 
with  soil.  This  treatment  supplies  the  food  directly  to  the 
roots  and  is  very  effective.  Nitrate  of  soda  or  other  nitro- 
genous fertilizer  may  also  be  used  to  advantage  in  this  way. 

Celery  and  Onions  Together.  In  some  sections  celery  is  grown 
as  a  second  crop  with  onions.  In  this  case  every  fourth  or 
fifth  row  is  left  vacant  when  the  onion  seed  is  sown,  and  this 
space  is  set  out  to  late  celery  plants  at  the  proper  time.  If 
the  onion  seed  is  sown  by  the  20th  of  April,  almost  any  of  the 


132 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


well  known  commercial  sorts  like  Yellow  Danvers  01*  Red 
Wethersfield  will  be  ripe  by  the  middle  of  August,  when  they 
can  be  harvested;  and  then  the  celery  can  occupy  all  the  land 
during  the  cool  weather  of  autumn,  when  it  makes  its  most 
rapid  growth. 

Handling.  As  celery  grows  naturally,  it  spreads  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  like  the  carrot.  The  term  handling  re- 
fers to  the  process  by  which  the  leaf  stalks  of  each  plant  are 
drawn  together  and  some  earth  pressed  firmly  around  them  by 
the  hands,  to  hold  them  in  an  upright  position.  After  this  is 
done,  more  earth  is  drawn  towards  the  plants  with  a  hoe,  until 
there  is  enough  to  prevent  their  spreading  open.  All  celery 
plants  should  have  this  upright  form  before  being  stored,  and 
it  is  all  the  bleaching  treatment  necessary  for  the  self-blanch- 
ing kinds.  The  land  should  be  thoroughly  cultivated  and  a 
furrow  turned  towards  the  plants  on  each  side  of  the  row  before 
the  handling  process  is  begun,  so  that  there  may  be  plenty  of 
loose  earth  to  work  with. 

Bleaching  with  Earth,  or  "Banking."  If  the  celery  is  intended 
for  marketing  previous  to  the  first  of  December,  it  should  be 


Fig.  66.— Celery  banked  up  for  bleaching. 
banked  up  or  otherwise  bleached  in  the  field.  Banking  up  is 
done  immediately  after  "handling."'  It  consists  in  plowing 
earth  against  the  celery  to  begin  with  and  then  finishing  it  off 
with  a  shovel  or  wide  hoe  until  the  earth  is  banked  up  to  the 
full  height  of  the  celery.  This  had  better  be  done  in  several 
operations  as  the  plants  grow  and  need  it. 

Bleaching  with  Boards.     Celery  that  is  to  be  marketed  early 
should  be  bleached  with  boards,  because  if    ';banked?'  with 


CELERY. 


133 


earth  it  is  more  liable  to  become  diseased.  Boards  ten  inch- 
es wide  are  the  best,  but  narrower  boards  may  be  used  nearly 
as  well,  providing  the  earth  is  first  drawn  towards  the  plants 
for  them  to  rest  on.  The  plants  are  generally  handled  before 
the  boards  are  put  on,  but  this  is  not  absolutely  necessary, 
although  desirable.  A  board  should  be  put  upon  each  side  of 
the  row  quite  close  to  the  plants  and  be  held  in  place  with  a 
peg.  If  for  any  reason  there  are  vacancies  in  the  row  or  the 
plants  are  not  close  enough  to  exclude  light  from  the  stalks 
when  the  boards  are  put  up,  the  vacancies  may  be  fillel  with 
hay  or  straw.  For  late  autumn  use,  it  is  probably  best  to 
bleach  the  plants  with  earth,  as  it  also  protects  from  frost 
and  is  much  cheaper  than  bleaching  with  boards  when  the 
first  cost  of  the  boards  and  the  handling  of  them  is  consid- 
ered. In  fact,  almost  all  growers  use  earth  to  bleach  their 
late  celery. 

Planting  in  Beds.     Some  growers  prefer  to  plant  the  celery 
in  beds  four  feet  wide  and  to  have  the  plants  set  ten  inches 


Fig.  67.— Celery  grown  in  beds  and  earthed  up  to  bleach. 
apart  each  way  in  the  beds:  in  which  case  a  four  foot  path  is 
left  between  the  beds  for  convenience  in  cultivation  and  weed- 
ing. In  this  way  a  very  large  amount  of  .celery  can  be  grown 
on  a  very  small  piece  of  land.  By  putting  boards  up  on  both 
sides  of  the  paths,  the  plants  will  take  on  the  upright  form,  so 
that  handling  will  be  unnecessary.     For  late  use  the  plants 


134  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

may  be  taken  directly  from  the  bed  to  the  cellar  without  bank- 
ing, but  it  will  generally  be  found  a  good  plan  late  in  the  fall 
to  pack  the  spaces  between  the  plants  with  hay  or  fill  them 
with  earth  from  the  paths,  as  they  will  then  be  protected  from 
frosts.  If  the  celery  is  to  be  blanched  in  the  bed,  this,  of 
course,  would  be  necessary.  To  grow  plants  so  close  together 
successfully  requires  the  utmost  care  in  the  preparation  of 
the  land.  It  should  be  covered  with  fine  rich  manure,  prefer- 
ably in  the  spring;  the  plants  will  also  require  to  be  frequent- 
ly and  heavily  watered,  since  the  land  will  be  full  of  roots. 

Digging  Celery.  Celery  will  stand  many  light  frosts,  but 
hard  freezing  is  liable  to  injure  it,  and  it  should  never  be 
handled  when  frozen.  It  is  seldom  safe  to  allow  it  to  remain 
unprotected  in  the  ground  in  this  section  after  the  middle  of 
October,  but  by  covering  the  plants  with  straw  or  other 
material  they  may  often  be  safely  left  in  the  field  until  the 
middle  of  November.  The  plants  are  generally  lifted  with  a 
spade  after  a  furrow  has  been  plowed  away  from  the  row 
on  one  side.  Most  of  the  soil  should  be  shaken  off  the  roots 
and  the  old  outside  leaves  removed  before  storing.  In  this 
section,  to  keep  well,  celery  should  be  stored  in  a  cold,  moist 
cellar  or  frost-proof  shed.  If  it  does  not  whiten  quickly 
enough,  the  plants  may  be  watered  and  kept  warm  and  thus 
started  into  growth,  which  results  in  forming  the  tender  white 
shoots  very  quickly. 

Storing  Celery.  For  home  use  a  good  way  to  keep  celery  is 
to  pack  the  plants  closely  together,  upright,  in  boxes  twelve  to 
eighteen  inches  wide,  with  the  bottom  covered  with  moist  sand, 
a  little  of  which  should  be  worked  in  among  the  roots.  Tjhere 
is  no  need  of  having  sand  between  the  plants.  These  boxes, 
when  packed,  should  be  kept  in  a  cold,  damp  cellar.  In  stor- 
ing for  market  use,  where  there  is  plenty  of  room,  the  plants 
are  sometimes  "heeled  in"  in  sand  on  the  floor;  the  cheapest 
practicable  way,  however,  is  to  pack  them  between  boards 
about  nine  inches  apart.  To  do  this,  place  the  first  board  on 
one  side  of  the  cellar  or  shed  nine  inches  from  the  wall,  with 
its  upper  edge  at  a  height  from  the  floor  a  little  less  than  the 
length  of  the  celery.  The  boards  may  be  supported  by  stakes 
and  should  not  rest  on  the  ground.  In  this  narrow  division 
the  celery  should  be  packed  upright,  as  described  for  packing 


CELERY.  135 

in  boxes.  As  soon  as  the  first  tier  is  filled,  erect  another 
board  division  at  nine  inches  from  the  first,  and  so  on,  until 
the  whole  surface  is  covered.  No  soil  or  sand  is  packed 
among  the  stalks  of  celery,  but  three  or  four  inches  of  either 
is  placed  on  the  floor,  into  which  the  roots  are  bedded.  The 
temperature  of  the  celery  should  be  kept  very  low,  and  even  a 
little  frost  in  the  cellar  will  not  hurt  it.  If  dry,  it  must  be 
watered,  but  water  must  not  be  put  upon  the  leaves,  as  it  may 
bring  on  rot.  If  celery  is  wanted  for  immediate  use,  it  may 
be  stored  in  barrels  or  troughs  containing  an  inch  or  two  of 
water.  This  is  also  a  very  good  way  of  hastening  the  bleach- 
ing process. 

The  green  stalks  of  celery  do  not  become  white,  and  the 
term  '"bleaching"  is  a  misnomer.  The  ''bleaching"  of  celery 
is  simply  the  result  of  the  plant  making  growth  in  the  dark, 
and  bleached  celery  will  keep  but  a  short  time  and  should  be 
used  as  soon  as  whitened.  Celery  for  use  in  the  latter  part  of 
winter  should  be  quite  green  in  color  when  put  into  winter 
storage;  for  early  winter  use  it  should  be  partly  bleached  when 
stored.  For  winter  use,  celery  should  be  left  out  as  late  as  is 
safe  in  the  fall,  so  that  the  cellar  or  pit  where  it  is  to  be  stored 
may  be  thoroughly  cooled  off  before  it  is  put  in. 

The  time  required  for  bleaching  celery  in  the  field  will  depend 
upon  whether  it  is  growing  rapidly  or  not.  During  the  first 
of  September,  when  celery  is  making  a  rapid  growth,  it  will 
probably  be  fit  to  use  in  three  weeks  from  the  time  it  is  banked 
up;  while  later  on,  when  the  weather  is  cool  and  the  celery  is 
growing  slowly,  four  weeks  will  be  found  necessary.  The 
same  conditions  affect  the  bleaching  process  after  storing.  In 
an  ordinary  frost  proof  cellar,  it  may  easily  be  bleached  in 
three  weeks  by  watering  it  and  then  raising  the  temperature  to 
fifty  degrees. 

Celery  seed  is  raised  by  wintering  the  roots  and  planting 
them  out  in  the  spring,  in  much  the  same  way  that  seed  of  the 
carrot  and  other  biennial  plants  is  grown. 

Diseases.  There  are  two  diseases  that  sometimes  seriously 
injure  celery,  but  the  are  not  commonly  very  troublesome. 
As  a  rule,  celery  growers  do  not  attempt  to  fight  them,  but 
select  the  healthiest  varieties  and  trust  to  good  cultivation  to 


186 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING, 


enable  the  plants  to  resist  them.     The  diseases  referred  to  are 
the  following-: 

Celerv  Blight,  Rust,  or  Sun-Scald  {Cereospora  apii  [Fries.] )  The 
first  indication  of  this  disease  is  the  appearance  of  yellowish 
spots  on  the  leaves.  These  finally  run  together  and  turn  the 
entire  leaves  yellow  and  then  brown. 

Treatment.  Secure  as  healthful  conditions  as  possible. 
Where  the  slants  are  somewhat  shaded,  they  are  less  liable 
to  the  disease  than  if  in  the  full  sunlight.  This  disease  is 
especially  bad  in  very  dry  locations.  It  is  reported  that  the 
Bordeaux  mixture  and  other  standard  fungicides  will  entirely 
prevent  it. 

Leaf  Blight  [Septorid  Petroselini  var.  apii.)  All  parts  of  the 
celery  plant  except  the  roots  are  liable  to  the  attacks  of  this 

fungous  disease.  Wa- 
tery spots  appear  on 
the  stems  and  leaves, 
which  soon  show  small, 
black  dots.  This  dis- 
ease may  be  spread  by 
the  seeds,  which  are 
likely  to  become  infect- 
ed. 

Treatment.       The 
first    precaution    is     to 
plant  clean  seed.     That 
which      is      spotted     or 
speckled  with  the  black 
spots  of  disease  should 
be    avoided.      In  addi- 
ng. 68.— Turnip-rooted  celery  or  celeriac.       tion  it  would  be  a  good 
plan  to  spray  the  young  plants  with  Bordeaux  mixture  on  the 
first  appearance  of  the  disease. 

Varieties  of  Celery.  The  dwarf  kinds  are  the  best  to  grow; 
the  red  kinds  are  of  the  best  quality  but  do  not  take  well  in 
the  markets.  For  early  marketing  the  White  Plume  is  highly  es- 
teemed and  is,  probably,  the  most  profitable  variety  for  general 
marketing.  Its  stalks  and  leaves  are  white  without  goingthrough 
the  bleaching  process  but  are  not  of  as  good  flavor  as  when 
bleached.     One  of  the  best  flavored  as  well    as    best  keeping 


CORN.  137 

kinds  is  the  Golden  Dwarf,  or  Golden  Hearted  Dwarf.  Other 
good  varieties  are  the  Perfection  Heartwell,  Giant  Pascal  and 
the  Boston  Market. 

Celeriac,  or  turnip-rooted  celery,  is  a  form  of  celery  cultivated 
for  its  roots,  which  are  eaten  either  cooked  or  raw.  The 
stalks  are  generally  hollow  and  quite  worthless.  The  plants 
are  raised  by  the  same  method  as  that  for  celery  but  may  be 
planted  in  rows  not  over  twelve  inches  apart.  The  roots  are 
generally  kept  by  storing  them  in  moist  sand  the  same  as 
carrots. 

Marketing.  Celery  is  marketed  when  well  bleached.  In 
preparing  it  for  market  most  of  the  roots  are  trimmed  off,  and 
the  green  and  decaying  leaves  are  removed.  About  a  dozen 
roots  are  generally  tied  together  for  a  bunch,  although  the 
size  of  the  bunch  varies  somewhat  in  different  markets.  Celery 
can  be  easily  shipped  long  distances  when  trimmed  and  packed 
in  tight  boxes.  Much  of  the  celery  supplied  to  the  markets  in 
this  section  comes  from  Kalamazoo,  Michigan,  where  it  is 
raised  on  drained  swamp  land. 

CORN.     {Zea  mays. ) 

Native  of  x\meri.ca. — Annual.— The  male  flowers  are  in 
-the  tassel  and  the  female  flowers  on  the  cob.  While  cross- 
fertilization  is  not  absolutely  necessary  for  the  production  of 
seed,  it  is  necessary  for  a  arood  crop.  The  varieties  of  corn 
may  be  easily  grouped  under  four  classes:  (1)  Sweet  corn, 
which  includes  varieties  with  soft  and  generally  much  wrinkled 
kernels,  that  are  especially  desirable  for  use  in  a  green  state 
on  account  of  their  being  sweeter  and  more  delicate  in  flavor 
than  other  kinds.  (2)  Flint  corn,  which  includes  field  varie- 
ties having  a  very  hard,  smooth  grain.  (3)  Dent  corn,  which 
includes  field  varieties  rather  softer  in  texture  than  the  flint 
•corn,  each  kernel  having  a  depression  in  the  end  of  it.  (4) 
Pop  corn,  which  has  a  kernel  of  flinty  hardness  and  is  used 
almost  entirely  for  popping  purposes.  These  classes  will  all 
cross  together.  But  there  are  numerous  varieties  in  each  of 
the  classes  varying  from  one  another  in  height  of  stalk,  size 
and  color  of  the  ear  and  kernel,  time  of  ripening  and  various 
minor  particulars.  The  color  of  the  grains  may  be  white, 
yellow,  red  or  purple,  but  white  and  yellow  are  most  common. 


138  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

Corn    is    quickly  improved   by  judicious    selection,  and   new 
varieties  are  frequently  originated  in  this  way. 


Cultivation.  For  early  use,  the  seed  should  be  sown  as  soon 
as  the  ground  begins  to  get  warm  in  the  spring.  Very  early 
planting  is  not  desirable  for  the  main  crop,  since  in  cold,  wet 
weather  the  seed  is  liable  to  rot  in  the  ground,  or  the  plants 
may  be  frozen  on  coming  up.  It  may, however. be  desirable  to 
plant  some  of  the  earliest  kinds  as  soon  as  the  weather  is 
warm,  and,  selecting  the  most  favorable  location,  run  the  risk 
of  failure,  as  the  profits  are  correspondingly  large  if  the  crop 
is  very  early,  while  the  expense  of  planting  is  a  small  matter. 
The  main  crop  of  corn  should  be  planted  from  the  middle  to 
the  last  of  May.  The  land  can  hardly  be  too  rich  for  corn, 
and  it  should  be  in  a  finely  pulverized  condition.  The  seed 
maybe  planted  in  rows  at  about  nine-inch  intervals,  with  rows 
three  to  four  feet  apart,  or  in  bills  three  to  four  feet  apart 
each  way,  according  to  the  growth  of  the  plants  and 
method  of  cultivation  to  be  followed.  It  should  be  covered 
about  two  inches.  If  grown  in  hills,  three  or  four  plants  should 
be  left  in  a  place,  which  means  planting  about  six  seeds  to  the 
hill.  If  planted  in  hills,  they  may  be  cultivated  both  ways, 
which  is  an  advantage  over  planting  in  rows.  In  rows,  how- 
ever, the  plants  develop  rather  better  than  in  hills,  and  it  is 
the  method  preferred  by  many  good  growers,  though  field  corn 
is  generally  grown  in  hills.  Corn  should  be  cultivated  shal- 
low and  never  deep  enough  to  cut  the  roots.  For  table  use, 
to  have  a  long  season  of  this  vegetable  in  its  best  condition, 
planting  of  the  very  early  and  some  good  second  early,  kind 
should  be  made  at  the  same  time;  and  then  plantings  of  the 
second  early  kinds  should  be  made  once  in  two  weeks  there- 
after up  to  about  the  twentieth  of  June,  after  which  time  it  is 
very  doubtful  about  its  getting  large  enough  for  table  use  be- 
fore the  autumn  frosts  set  in.  The  very  early  kinds,  however, 
may  be  planted  in  this  section  as  late  as  the  fourth  of  July, 
with  good  prospects  of  their  becoming  of  marketable  size;  but 
the  very  early  varieties  are  small  in  size  and  not  as  sweet  and 
desirable  as  the  larger  midsummer  kinds;  a  few  varieties  re- 
quire the  whole  season  in  which  to  obtain  table  size.  If 
properly  planted,  sweet  corn  may  be  had  in  a    young   and 


CORN. 


139 


tender  condition  from  the  middle  of  July  until  the  cold  weather 
of  autumn  sets  in. 

Marketing.  There  is  a  large  demand  for  green  corn  in 
every  city  and  village.  It  is  marketable  as  soon  as  the 
kernels  are  well  formed  and  is  generally  sold  in  the  husk,  by 
the  dozen  or  the  barrel.  There  are  several  canning  factories  in 
this  section  and  many  in  other  parts  of  the  country  that  make 
a  specialty  of  canning  sweet  corn.  Grown  for  this  purpose  or 
for  evaporating,  it  is  a  farm  crop  that  may  be  made  to  pay 
very  well  in  some  locations.  Extensive  tracts  of  land  are  de- 
voted to  raising  it.  Where  the  crop  is  marketed  at  canning 
factories,  the  fodder  is  left  on  the  farm  and  is  in  admirable 
condition  for  feeding.  The  ears  are  best  for  table  use  when 
first  picked,  but  quickly  lose  in  quality  after  gathering;  if 
they  heat  in  piles  or  packages,  they  are  of  very  inferior 
quality. 

Varieties.  For  very  early  use,  the  Cory  is  a  general 
favorite  and  is  probably  earlier  than  any  other  kind.  It  will 
often  mature  in  eight  weeks.     Early  Minnesota  is  a  little  later 


Fig.  69.— Early  Cory  corn. 

but  a  much  better  table  variety.  For  second  early  and  mid- 
season  use,  Perry's  Hybrid,  Moore's  Concord,  Potter's  Excel- 
sior and  Landreth's  Sugar  are  excellent. 

For  late  use, requiring  a  long  season,  Stowell's  Evergreen, 
and  Egyptian  Mammoth  are  desirable.  These  kinds  have 
large  ears  and  are  particularly  desirable  for  canning  pur- 
poses.    The  Country  Gentleman  is  a  peculiar  late  variety  of 


140  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

great  merit.     The  kernels  are  narrow  and  long  and  not  ar- 
ranged in  rows   but   irregularly  on  the  ear.     It  has,  perhaps, 


Fig.  70.—  Late  sweet  corn. . 

the  smallest  cob  of  any  known  variety.  While  it  requires  a 
long;  season  to  get  it  to  an  edible  sizeT  it'"is-6T  fine  quality  and 
'  very  desirable  for  home  use. 

Pop  corn  is    grown  in  the  same  way  as   sweet  corn.     For 

home  use.  a  very  little  will  suffice:  in  some  sections,  however, 

it  is  raised  in  large  quantities.     It  is  usually  marketed  on  the 

'  cob    and     is    seldom    salable  -,,until    at    least    one    year   old. 

Among  the  best  varieties  are  White  Rice  and  Golden  Pop. 

Varieties  of  corn  run  out  and  change  very  quickly,  and  there 
is  often  much  difference  in  the  strains  of  different  kinds.  Those 
that  it  is  desired  to  keep  pure  should  be  grown  at  least  1000 
feet  away  from  other  kinds  that  flower  at  the  same  period.  Varie- 
ties of  corn  of  every  description,  including  allthose  belonging 
to  the  sweet,  dent,  flint  and  pop  corn  classes,  will  mix  together 
when  rightly  situated.  In  saying  seed  of  the  late  varieties  of 
sweet  corn,  it  is  necessary  to  give  it  plenty  of  light  and  air.  as 
it  is  rather  difficult  to  cure.  A  good  way  is  to  tie  it  in  small 
bunches  and  suspend  in  a  dry,  hot,  airy  room.  Seed  corn 
should  never  be  subjected  to  a  freezing  temperature  until  it  is 
thoroughly  dry,  or  its  germinating  qualities  will   be  injured. 

Preserving  Green  Corn.     Green  corn  is  often  preserved  in    a 


CORN. 


141 


small  way  by  cooking  and  then  cutting-  it  from  the  cob  and 
drying  it  in  the  sun.  oven  or  evaporator.  It  is  also  preserved 
in  brine  by  first  cooking  it  and  then  treating  the  same  as 
recommended  for  cucumber  pickles.  It  may  also  be  cut  from 
the  cob-  after  cooking  and  packed  in  a  vessel  in  layers  alter, 
nating  with  salt,  using  about  seven  pounds  of  salt  to  a  bushel 
of  kernels. 

Cutting  off  the  Tassels.  It  has  been  recommended  to  cut  off 
half  of  the  tassels  from  the  young  corn,  on  the  ground  that 
one-half  the  tassels  would  produce  all  the  pollen  needed  by  all 
the  kernels.  While  some  experiments  have  shown  this  to  be 
true. many  other  experiments  show  there  is  little  if  anything  to 
be  gained  by  the  practice. 

Insects.  Corn  is  quite  free  from  serious  injury,  either  from 
insects  or  diseases.  The  most  injurious  insects  are  the  cut 
worm  and  boll  worm,  for  discussion  of  which  see  chapter  on 
insects. 

Smut(  Ustilago  Maydis)is  almost  the  only  disease  seriously 
injurious  to  corn.     It  is  a  fungous  disease  that  works  in  almost 

any  part  of  the  plant, 
causing  swellings  which 
contain  black  spores. 
When  ripe,  the  swellings 
burst  and  the  spores  are 
scattered  to  continue  the 
disease  another  year. 
There  can  be  no  question 
but  that  gathering  and 
destroying  the  bunches  of 
spores  by  burning  or  bu- 
rying them  deeply  in  the 
ground  would  result  in 
Fig.  71.— Corn  smut.  (Ustilago  Maydis.)  greatly  lessening  the  loss 
from  this  cause.  It  is,  however,  such  an  expensive  remedy 
as  to  seem  almost  impracticable.  Some  experiments  seem  to 
show  that  soaking  the  seed  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper 
may  assist  in  preventing  this  trouble  in  corn  as  well  as  smut  in 
wheat,  but  other  experiments  apparently  prove  the  contrary, 
and  it  may  be  taken  as  a  doubtful  matter  at  the  best.  Prac- 
tically, then,  we  know  of  no  sure  remedy  for  smut  in  corn. 


142  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

CRESS.     (Pepper  Grass.  )    [Lepidium  sativum.) 

Native  of  Persia. — Annual. — An  early  spring  vegetable, 
used  as  a  salad  and  for  garnishing  and  of  the  easiest  cul- 
ture. It  should  be  sown  very  early  in  the  spring  in  the  hot- 
bed or  outdoors  in  rows  one  foot  or  less  apart.  As  it  quickly 
runs  to  seed,  a  succession  of  sowings  should  be  made  every  eight 
or  ten  days.  It  is  only  in  demand  in  the  early  spring  or  in 
winter.  It  can  easily  be  grown  in  a  window  box  in  a  dwelling- 
house.     Flowers  white  and  small;  seeds  comparatively  large. 

WATEPv  CRESS.     {Nasturtium  officinale.) 

Native  of  Europe. — Perennial. — An  aquatic  plant  with 
long  stems,  which  readily  take  root  in  moist  soil  ov  in  water. 
It  is  esteemed  for  use  as  a  salad  on  account  of  its  pleasant 
pungent  flavor.  Leaves  are  compound,  with  roundish  divis- 
ions: flowers,  small,  white,  in  terminal  spikes;  seeds,  usually 
few,  very  fine,  in  slightly  curved  pods. 

Culture.  It  can  only  be  cultivated  successfully  in  moist 
situations  and  generally  does  best  along  the  edges  of  streams, 
where  it  grows  partially  in  the  water.  It  may,  however,  be 
grown  successfully  in  any  moist  soil,  even  in  a  greenhouse.  It 
is  very  hardy,  but  for  best  results  should  be  covered  with  water 
during  winter.  Most  of  the  supply  for  our  markets  comes 
from  along  the  courses  of  natural  streams.  In  Europe, trenches 
from  16  to  20  feet  wide  for  growing  water  cress  are  often  ex- 
cavated, into  which  running  water  may  be  turned  at  pleasure. 
In  the  bottom  of  these  trenches,  the  roots  of  the  cress  are 
planted.  The  water  is  then  let  in,  and  the  plants  are  not  in- 
terfered with  until  they  have  grown  strong  enough  to  yield  a 
crop  of  leaves.  It  is  often  practicable  to  make  narrow  beds 
about  springs  or  slow  running  streams  for  this  purpose. 

CUCUMBER.     (  Cucumis  sativus. ) 

Native  of  the  East  Indies. — Annual. — A  creeping  plant  with 
angular,  flexible  stems,  rough  to  touch  and  furnished  with 
tendrils.  The  flowers  are  yellow,  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves, 
some  male,  others  female;  the  latter  flowers  are  on  the  ovary, 
which  becomes  the  cucumber.  The  plants  produce  flowers  and 
fruit  in  succession  over  a  long  season,  and  these  are  naturally 


CUCUMBER.  143 

pollenized  by    insects.     The    seed  is    long,  oval  in  form  and 
yellowish-white  in  color. 

Cultivation.  The  land  for  cucumbers  should  be  a  deep,  ricn> 
somewhat  retentive  loam,  and  yet  this  vegetable  will  do  very 
well  with  only  moderately  favorable  conditions.  For  ordinary 
use  and  for  the  home  garden,  cucumber  seed  should  be  planted 
after  the  ground  is  warm,  say  from  the  middle  to  the  last  of 
May,  but  it  may  be  planted  with  good  results  as  late  as  the 
middle  of  June.  It  is  quite  customary  to  furrow  out  the  land 
six  feet  apart  one  way,  mark  crossways  of  the  furrows 
with  a  six  foot  marker  and  put  a  shovelful  of  well  rotted 
manure  or  compost  at  each  intersection.  Cover  this  manure 
with  soil  and  plant  the  cucumber  seed.  Of  course,  when  the 
land  is  in  the  best  condition,  it  is  not  necessary  to  put 
manure  in  the  hills;  in  such  cases,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to 
mark  out  both  ways  and  plant  at  the  intersections. 
About  ten  or  a  dozen  seeds  should  be  put  in  each  hill  and 
covered  about  one  inch  deep,  and  the  soil  packed  over  the 
seeds.  As  soon  as  the  plants  are  up,  and  after  each  rain, 
they  should  have  the  soil  loosened  around  them.  They  should 
also  be  kept  dusted  with  Paris  green  and  plaster  or  some  other 
dust,  to  keep  off  the  striped  beetles,  which  are  often  very 
troublesome  and  may  destroy  the  plants  when  they  are  small 
unless  preventive  measures  are  used.  (See  chapter  on  insects. ) 
The  land  should  be  cultivated  both  ways  until  the  vines  prevent 
it,  so  that  very  little  work  will  have  to  be  done  by  hand. 
About  three  good  plants  are  enough  for  each  hill,  and  the 
rest  should  be  removed  after  the  danger  from  serious  insect 
injuries  has  passed. 

Gathering  the  Crop.  If  for  table  use  or  for  marketing  in  a 
green  state,  the  cucumbers  are  gathered  when  full  grown  but 
still  green;  if  for  pickles,  the  cucumbers  are  gathered  as  soon 
as  of  the  required  size,  which  is  generally  when  they  are 
about  three  inches  long.  Some  factories  put  up  larger  and 
some  smaller  pickles  than  this  size.  To  gather  them  of  just 
the  right  size  requires  that  the  whole  bed  be  picked  over  about 
once  in  two  days.  This  is  a  matter  of  much  labor  and  is 
generally  paid  for  by  the  piece.  No  cucumbers  should  be  al- 
lowed to  go  to  seed  if  pickles  or  table  cucumbers  are  wanted, 
for  as  soon  as  seed  is  ripened  the  plants  commence  to  die  off, 


144  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

while  if  constantly  gathered  when  green  and  not  allowed  to 
ripen. the  plants  will  continue  bearing  a  longtime.  In  the  vicin- 
ity of  pickling  factories,  cucumbers  for  pickles  are  often  raised 
in  large  quantities  as  a  farm  crop  and  are  contracted  for  at  a 
specified  price  per  thousand  or  per  hundred  pounds,  for  the 
season.  For  home  use  or  for  storing  and  marketing  in  the 
winter,  the  cucumbers  are  packed  in  salt  or  salt  brine  when 
gathered.  Growers  generally  use  about  seven  pounds  of  salt 
to  a  bushel  of  cucumbers.  They  may  also  be  packed  in  dry 
salt  in  layers,  which  has  the  effect  of  taking  the  water  out  of 
the  cucumbers,  causing  them  to  shrivel  up  and  lie  in  their  own 
juice.  When  wanted  for  use,  they  are  freshened  out  in  water, 
whichcauses those  that  are  shrivelled  to  swell  up  plump;  they 
are  then  put  in  vinegar.  Cucumber  pickles  are  easily  kept 
until  the  following  spring  in  this  way,  but  when  kept  later  than 
spring  they  get  soft  and  are  not  so  desirable.  Cucumbers  will 
stand  without  injury  a  great  amount  of  dry  weather  if  fre- 
quently cultivated. 

Starting  cucumbers  in  cold  frames  and  hotbeds  and  then 
transplanting  them  to  the  open  ground  when  all  clanger  of  frost 
is  over  is  a  common  practice  where  they  are  wanted  for  early 
use.  Under  this  system  the  seed  is  sown  in  old  strawberry 
boxes,  tomato  cans,  flower  pots.  etc.  Square  pieces  of  in- 
verted sod  are  also  used  for  the  same  purpose,  four  or  five 
seeds  being  sown  on  each  piece  five  inches  square  and  covered 
with  good  soil.  The  plants  in  this  latter  case  root  into  the 
sod  and  are  easily  moved.  Starting  cucumbers  this  way  has 
the  merit  of  advancing  the  period  of  maturity  of  the  plants, 
and  as  they  are  well  started  when  set  out  there  is  little  danger 
of  attacks  of  the  striped  beetle,  and  the  fruit  is  earlier  than 
when  sown  in  the  open  ground.  In  following  out  this  plan, 
the  seed  should  not  be  sown  before  the  first  of  May,  or  the 
plants  will  be  too  large  to  move  well.  Before  the  plants  are 
removed  from  the  frames  to  the  open  ground,  they  should  be 
exposed  without  the  sash  for  several  days  until  well  hardened 
off.  When  these  plants  are  moved  to  the  open  ground,  they 
should  be  set  rather  deeper  than  they  grew  in  the  frames. 
They  are  then  cultivated  the  same  as  plants  from  seed  sown  in 
the  hill.  Another  way  for  advancing  the  cucumber  season 
when  hotbed  sash  is  used   is  by  planting  a  hill  of  them  very 


CUCUMBER. 


145 


earl y,  in  the  center  of  each  sash  of  the  hotbed, the  rest  of  each 
sash  may  be  used  for  an  early  crop.  The  cucumbers  will  not 
need  much  room  for  several  weeks,  which  will  give  time  to 
grow    the   early    crop    and    get    it    out    of    the    way  of    the 


IT 


Fig.  7:2.     Chicago  Pickling  Cucumber. 

cucumbers.  The  sashes  should  be  removed  when  warm  weather 
comes,  and  the  vines  allowed  to  grow  in  the  frames  all  summer. 

Insects.  The  cucumber  has  a  serious  enemy  in  the  striped 
beetle  and  is  also  liable  to  injury  from  the  cut  worm.  ( For 
remedies  see  chapter  on  insects.  ) 

Varieties.  For  general  home  use  and  marketing,  the  White 
Spine  is  a  favorite.  For  pickles  the  most  profitable  kinds  are 
those  producing  many  small  cucumbers,  such  as  the  variety 
known  as  the  Boston  Pickling.  There  are  many  good  varie- 
ties of  cucumbers,  and  they  are  offered  under  various  names. 
For  earliest  use,  the  Early  Russian  is  perhaps  the  best,  but 
it  is  small. 

Seed.  Cucumber  seed  is  easily  raised,  and  in  some  loca- 
tions it  is  a  product  of  some  importance.  In  raising  seed,  it 
is  important  to  save  it  from  the  early  fruit,  which  in  a  small 
way  are  easily  saved ;  on  a  large  scale,  the  fruits  are  allowed 
to  ripen  but  not  to  rot  on  the  ground.  When  the  vines  are 
dead,  the  ripe  cucumbers  are  split  open,  the  pulp  scooped  out 
with  the  seeds  and  allowed  to  ferment  for  a  few  days,  when  it 
readily    separates  from   the  seed.     The  whole   mass    is    then 


146 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


thrown  into  a  sieve  with  a  mesh  small  enough  to  not  allow  the 
seeds  to  pass  through,  and  the  pulp  is  washed  through  the 
sieve,  leaving-  the  clean  seed,  which  is  carefully  dried.  If  the 
cucumbers  are  allowed  to  get  rotten  before  the  seed  is  taken 
out,  the  skins  will  become  mixed  with  the  seed,  and  the  seed 
will  be  discolored. 


DANDELION,     (  Taraxacum  officinale. ) 

Native  of  Europe. — Perennial. — The  dandelion  is  a  famil- 
iar   plant  to    almost   every    one.     It   is    now  of   spontaneous 

growth  here,  and  is  used  for 
greens  in  its  wild  state;  but  the 
cultivated  varieties  are  quite 
an  improvement  on  the  wild 
plants.  The  best  method  of 
growing  it  is  by  sowing  the  seed 
in  the  spring  in  drills  ten  in- 
ches apart  and  thinning  out  the 
plants  to  three  inches  apart  in 
rows.  The  seed  is  somewhat 
difficult  to  start,  and  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  go  over  each  row 
twice  with  the  seed  sower,  so  as 
as  to  mix  the  seed  up  with  the 
soil,  since  by  this  method  some  of  it  will  be  sure  to  be  pro- 
perly covered  for  germinating.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  the 
fall  but  not  generally  until  spring.  It  is  often  forced  by  cov- 
ering the  bed  with  the  hotbed  sash  or  by  transplanting  to 
hotbeds  or  cold  frames.  It  is  sometimes  blanched  and  used 
as  a  salad,  for  which  purpose  it  is  much  like  endive.  While 
the  plant  is  a  perennial,  yet  only  one  crop  should  be  harvest- 
ed, since  after  the  first  cutting  there  are  many  sprouts  pro- 
duced from  each  root,  so  that  none  of  them  are  large  enough  for 
good  market  plants.  The  plants  should  always  be  plowed  in 
before  they  ripen  seed,  unless  seed  is  to  be  saved,  to  prevent 
its  scattering  and  becoming  a  nuisance.  A  variety  called  the 
Improved-Thick-Leaved  is  the  most  esteemed. 

EGG  PLANT.     (  Solanum  Melongena, ) 
Native    of    South    America. — Annual. — Stem    erect     and 


Fig.  73.    Dandelion. 


ENDIVE. 


147 


branching-:  flowers  solitary    and  violet  in  color:  seeds  flat,  of 

medium  size.     The  egg   plant  is  little  used  in  this    section  but 

can  be  grown  to  perfection  in  our  hot,   dry 

--^"^i&sSc^  summers.     The  seed  must  be  sown,  even  ear- 

^JlyfXSk         lier    than  tomato    seeds,  in    the    greenhouse 

or    hotbed,  but  when   only  a  few  plants  are 

wanted  itwill  be  found  best  to  buy  the  plants, 

as     they    require    delicate    handling.       The 

plants  are  set  in  rows  three  by  two  feet  apart 

Fig.  74  Egg  Plant  after  the  ground  is  wel1  warmed  up,  which  is 
seldom  before  the  tenth  of  June. 
The  fruit  attains  marketable  size  by  the  last  of  August. 
The  plants  are  very  liable  to  the  attacks  of  the  potato  beetle. 
The  best  variety  is  the  New  York  purple.  The  variety  known 
as  the  Long  Purple  is  somewhat  earlier. 


ENDIVE.    ( Cichorium  Endivia. ) 

Native  of  the  East  India. — Annual. — Endive  resembles  the 
dandelion  in  habit  and  growth.  It  is  esteemed  by  some  as  a 
desirable  fall  and  winter 
salad  since  it  has  a  pleas- 
ant bitter  taste  when 
blanched.  It  is  of  very 
simple  culture  and  may  be 
grown  in  much  the  same 
manner  as  lettuce.  For 
summer  use,  sow  the  seed 
early  in  the  spring:  for 
autumn  and  winter  use, 
sow  in  July.  It  is  blanched 
before  being  eaten.  This 
is  accomplished  by  tying 
the  leaves  lightly  together 
when  the  plants  have  near- 
ly completed  their  growth. 
After  this  treatment,  the  leaves  in  the  center  of  the  plant  will 
have  become  blanched  in  about  three  weeks.  Do  not  tie  the 
plants  too  rapidly,  since  the  hearts  are  liable  to  rot  soon 
after  blanching,  especially  if  the  weather  is  warm.  On  the 
approach  of    severe  weather,    the  plants   may    be  planted  in 


Fig.  75.     Curled  Endive. 


148  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

boxes  in  a  cold  cellar,  where  they    will  continue  to  produce  a 
nice  salad    during-  the  early  part  of  the  winter. 

A  variety  known  as  the  Green  Curled  is  generally  grown, 
but  other  varieties  are  offered  by  seedsmen. 

GARDEN  HERBS. 

Under  this  head  are  grouped  a  number  of  sweet,  culinary 
and  medicinal  plants  that  are  cultivated  to  some  extent  in 
gardens.  They  are  generally  easily  grown  in  mellow,  open 
soil.  Those  having  foliage  that  is  esteemed  for  its  aroma 
should  generally  be  cut  on  a  dry  day,  just  as  they  reach 
full  flowering  stage,  and  should  be  dried  quickly  in  the  shade. 
As  a  rule,  herbs  should  be  cut  before  being  frozen,  though 
freezing  does  not  always  injure  them.  When  dry,  they  should 
be  kept  in  dry  air-tight  boxes  or  vessels.  The  demand  is  very 
limited  for  most  of  them.  Only  a  few  of  the  most  common 
kinds  are  referred  to  here.  In  the  extreme  Northern  states, 
many  of  the  perennial  kinds  will  kill  out  in  severe  winters. 

Anise.  {Pinpinella  anisum.)  A  Native  of  Asia  Minor. — 
Annual. — Attains  a  height  of  sixteen  inches.  The  seeds  are 
small  and  used  in  medicine.  Sow  in  April  or  May  where  the 
plants  are  to  remain  during  the  season. 

Balm.  ( Mellissa  officinalis. )  A  Native  of  the  South  of 
Europe.— Perennial.— A  plant  growing  about  eighteen  inches 
high;  seed,  very  small.  Sow  in  spring  where  plants  are  to 
remain. 

Sweet  Basil.  {Ocymum  Basilicum.)  Native  of  India.— 
Annual. — Stem  about  one  foot  high:  very  branching.  The 
leaves  and  other  green  parts  have  an  agreeable  aromatic 
odor  and  are  used  in  .seasoning.  Sow  indoors  in  March  or 
April  and  transplant  as  soon  as  the  weather  is  settled.  It 
may  also  be  sown  in  the  open  ground  early  in  the  spring, 

Caraway.  (  Garum  Carui. )  Native  of  Europe.— Biennial.— 
Stem  straight,  two  or  three  feet  high.  The  seeds  resemble 
those  of  carrots.  It  should  be  sown  in  May  in  drills  and 
does  not  go  to  seed  until  the  following  season,  very  hardy  and 
of  the  easiest  culture.     The  seeds  are  esteemed  for  flavoring. 

Dill.  {Anethumgraveoleus.)  Native  of  Southern  Europe. — 
Annual.— Height,    from  two  to    two   and  a  half   feet.     It  is  of 


GARDEN  HERBS. 


149 


the  easiest  culture.  The  seed  is  much  used  as  flavoring-  for 
pickles  of  various  kinds.  It  should  be  sown  in  the  spring  or 
summer  in  rows  about  one  foot  apart  and  cultivated  the  same  as 
for  carrots.  Where  the  seed  ripens,  an  abundance  of  plants 
will  spring-  up  the  following  year. 

Sweet  Marjoram.  {Origanum  Marjorana. )  Native  of  Asia. — 
Perennial  but  generally  grown  as  an  annual. — The  leaves  and 
other  green  parts  are  used  for  seasoning.  The  seeds  are  very 
small.     Sow  early  in  spring  in  any  good  garden  soil. 

Summer  Savory.  ( Satureia  hortensis. )  Native  of  Southern 
Europe. — Annual. — A  small  plant  eight  to  ten  inches  high. 
The  seed,  which  is  very  small,  should  be  sown  the  latter  part 
of  April  or  in  May.  The  leaves  and  young  shoots  are  used 
for  flavoring. 

Common  Sage.  ( Salvia  officinalis. )  Native  of  Southern 
Europe. — Perennial. — Plants  forming  broad  tufts  about  six- 
teen inches  high:  flowers  in  heads 
of  three  or  four  in  terminal  clus- 
ters, usually  blueish  white  but 
sometimes  white  or  pink.  The 
seeds  are  round  and  of  medium 
size.  Plants  come  readily  from 
seed,  which  should  be  sown  in 
early  spring.  It  is  customary 
in  a  small  way  to  sow  the  seed 
outdoors  and  allow  the  plants  to 
remain  where  they  grow  for  sever- 
al years.  Where  it  is  grown  on 
a  large  scale, however,  the  plants 
are  generally  put  out  as  a  second 
crop,  following  such  crops  a  sear- 
ly  peas  or  cabbage.  There  is 
some  uncertainty  about  its  coming  through  very  severe  win- 
ters in  the  more  Northern  states,  but  it  generally  does  so  in 
good  shape;  it  is  more  reliable  if  banked  with  earth  or  cov- 
ered with  litter  in  winter.  Broad-leaved  sage  is  an  improved 
kind. 

Thyme.  (  Thymus  vulgaris. )  Native  of  Southern  Europe.— 
Perennial. — A  small  plant  with  small  aromatic  leaves  and 
stems.     It  starts  easily  if  sown  in  early  spring.     It  is  custom- 


Fig. 


Branch  of  Sage  plant. 


150  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

ary  to  sow  the  seed  where  the  plants  are  to  remain,  but  it  may 
be  transplanted.  It  is  in  demand  for  flavoring-;  is  generally 
hardy  at  the  north.  Broad-leaved  thyme  is  the  only  variety 
worth  growing. 

Mint  or  Spearmint.  {Mentha  viridis.)  Native  of  Europe. — 
Perennial. — A  plant  with  vigorous  creeping  root  stock,  very 
hardy:  sometimes  a  troublesome  weed  in  moist  soil.  It  is 
grown  by  planting  the  roots  in  the  spring.  There  is  a  small 
demand  for  this  plant  in  winter  as  well  as  in  summer,  which 
is  met  by  a  greenhouse  supply.  The  leaves  and  young  shoots 
are  used  for  seasoning. 

Peppermint.  (Mentha  piperita.)  Native  of  Northern  Eur- 
ope.— Perennial. — Propagated  by  divisions  of  the  stems; 
occasionally  a  roadside  weed  in  moist  places.  It  is  cultivated 
in  the  same  way  as  spearmint.  Used  mostly  for  its  essential 
oil  which  is  obtained  by  distillation.  The  raising  of  this 
plant  forms  a  considerable  industry  in  a  few  locations  in 
the  Northern  states. 

HORSERADISH.     {Nasturium  Armoracia.) 

Native  of  Europe. — Perennial. — Flowers  white  and  small, 
in  long  clusters:  seed  vessels  small,  rounded  and  almost  al- 
ways   barren.     Propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  roots. 

Cultivation.  This  plant  delights  in  deep,  moist  soil,  but  will 
grow  in  almost  any  situation  and  is  very  hardy.  For  home  use 
it  is  customary  to  let  it  remain  in  some  neglected  corner,  where  it 
kills  out  everything  else,  and  though  treated  in  this  way  it 
yields  sufficient  roots  for  home  use:  yet  the  roots  are  so 
crowded  that  they  are  scarcely  salable.  When  grown  as  a 
market  crop,  it  is  planted  anew  each  year.  Straight  pieces  of 
roots  six  or  eight  inches  long,  called  ''sets,"  are  planted 
about  twelve  inches  apart,  in  rows  two  feet  apart,  early  in 
the  spring.  The  roots  must  be  set  right  end  uppermost,  or 
they  will  not  grow  smooth  or  straight.  An  iron  bar  is  the 
most  convenient  tool  for  planting  the  ' ■sets''.  The  top  of  the 
sets  should  be  about  two  inches  below  the  surface.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  grow  horseradish  as  a  second  crop  after  peas  or 
cabbage,  by  setting  the  roots  between  the  rows  of  the  first  crop 
and  cultivating  the  soil  without  regard  to  them  until  the  first 
crop    is    harvested.      It    does  not  seem    to  hurt    horseradish 


KALE. 


151 


4 'sets"  much  if  they  are  cut  off  a  few  times  in  cultivating 
early  in  the  season.  When  the  first  crop  is  gathered,  the 
land  is  thoroughly  cultivated,  and  the  horseradish  plants 
given  good  care.  This  plant  makes  its  greatest  growth  in 
autumn  and  is  dug  on  the  approach  of  winter  or  can  be  left 
until  spring.  It  must  never  be  left  two  years  on  the  same 
land,  or  else  great  labor  will  be  required  to  get  rid  of  it,  and 
the  roots  will  be  so  crooked  as  to  be  almost  unsalable. 
Horseradish  is  used  almost  entirely  after  grinding  or  grating 
the  roots  and  mixing  with  vinegar.  It  will  keep  for  any 
length  of  time  when  thus  prepared  and  kept  in  air-tight  pack- 
ages. It  is  also  ground  and  dried,  and  the  young  leaves  are 
sometimes  used  for  greens.  The  demand  is  limited,  though 
considerable  quantities  are  sold  each  year.  Under  some 
conditions  it  is  a  paying  crop,  but  the  business  is  very  apt  to 
be  overdone.     There  are  no  varieties. 


KALE  OR  BORECOLE.     {Brassica   oleracea  var.  ) 

Native  of  Europe  and  Asia. — Annual    or  biennial. — The 

seed  is  like  that  of 
the  cabbage  or 
kohl-rabi.  Under 
this  head  is  grouped 
a  number  of  vege- 
tables closely  rela- 
ted to  the  cabbage 
and  kohl-rabi  that 
are  used  for  greens. 
Fig.  77.    Kale.  None   of  them  are 

sufficiently  hardy  in  the  extreme  north  to  stand  out  over  win- 
ter. They  are  here  cultivated  in  the  same  manner  as  turnips. 
In  sections  where  the  winters  are  mild,  some  of  them  are  es- 
teemed for  planting  in  autumn  for  early  spring  use. 


KOHL-RABI.     (Brassica  oleracea  var.) 

Kohl-rabi  has  been  derived  from  a  plant  nearly  allied  to 
the  cabbage,  and  its  seed  resembles  cabbage  seed.  Its  pecu- 
liarity is  its  swollen  stem  just  above  the  ground,  which  is 
used  for  the  same  purpose  and  grown  in  the  same  general  way 


152 

as  the   turnip. 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

It  is  more  highly  estesmed  than  turnips  for 
early  summer  use. 
Like  turnips  it 
should  be  sown 
where  it  is  to  mature, 
and  it  may  be  stored 
in  winter  like  turnips. 
Varieties.  There 
are  small  tender  va- 
rieties especially  de- 
signed for  table  use 
and  others  that  grow 
to  large  size  and  are 
valuable  for  feeding 
stock.  Two  of  the 
best  fortableuse  are 
the  White,  or  Purple, 
Vienna. 


LEEKS.     [Allium 
Porrum. ) 

Said  to  be  a  na- 
tive of  Switzerland. 
—Biennial. — The  leek  is  closely  allied  to  the  onion,  which 
it  resembles  in  flavor,  color  of  seed  and  flower.  However,  it 
does  not  form  a  bulb  but  a  straight 
bunch  of  leaves,  that  are  used  al- 
most entirely  in  a  fresh,  or  un- 
cooked, condition.  The  leaves  are 
flat  instead  of  round  and  hollow,  as 
is  the  case  with  onions.  As  yet  the 
vegetable  is  little  grown  in  this 
country  except  around  the  large  ci- 
ties .  Q^y,  O 

Cultivation.  Its  requirements  are 
about  the  same,  and  it  may  be  culti- 
vated in  much  the  same  way  as  the 
onion,  but  it  is  more  common  to  sow 
the  seed  early  in  spring  and    trans-  Fi£-  79-    Leek, 

plant  in  the  summer,  setting  plants  very  deep,  as  the  market  value 


Fig, 


Kohl-rabi. 


LETTUCE.  153 

depends  on  the  blanched  condition  of  the  stem;  and  for  the 
same  reason  in  hoeing  the  soil  is  drawn  up  over  the  stem. 
They  transplant  very  easily  when  the  soil  is  moist,  but  should 
have  the  tops  trimmed  off  as  recommended  in  transplanting 
onions.  If  they  are  not  transplanted,  especial  care  should  be 
taken  to  draw  the  soil  towards  the  plants  in  hoeing.  They 
may  be  stored  in  the  same  manner  as  celery,  and  are  mark- 
eted in  bunches  the  same  as  green  onions. 

Varieties.  There  are  several  varieties  which  vary  in  form 
and  color. 

Large  Flag  leek  is  a  popular  sort  and.  perhaps,  more 
largely  grown  than  any  other. 

Scotch  Flag  or  Musselburgh  leek  is  longer  than  the  above 
but  not  quite  so  large  round. 

LETTUCE.     [Lactuca  saliva.) 

Native  of  India  or  Central  Asia. — Annual. — Flowers  yel- 
low, on  seed  stalks  two  or  more  feet  high:  seeds  small,  flat, 
white  or  black  but  sometimes  yellow  or  reddish  brown  in  col- 
or. The  shape  and  size  of  the  leaves  also  vary  greatly;  some- 
times they  form  a  head  like  the  cabbage  and  again  only  a 
loose  bunch.  The  foilage  is  generally  of  some  shade  of  green, 
but  some  varieties  have  leaves  of  a  reddish  color. 

Cultivation.  Lettuce  is  largely  grown  in  greenhouses  dur- 
ing the  winter,  in  hotbeds  and  cold  frames  in  the  early  spring 
and  outdoors  in  the  late  spring  and  until  severe  weather  in 
autumn.  It  is  a  very  important  crop  for  the  market  gardener, 
as  there  is  some  demand  for  it  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  and 
a  large  call  for  it  in  the  spring.  Some  growers  making  a  spe- 
cialty of  this  crop  have  it  in  marketable  condition  every 
month  of  the  year.  In  some  sections,  the  plants  may  be  start- 
ed in  September  and  when  of  good  size  transplanted  to  a  cold 
frame,  where  they  may  be  safely  wintered  over.  In  the  spring 
they  are  used  for  planting  in  hotbeds  and  in  the  open  ground- 
In  the  extreme  Northern  states,  however,  although  plants  fre- 
quently come  through  the  winter  safely  when  thus  protected, 
it  is  not  a  method  to  be  depended  upon.  It  is  customary  here 
to  raise  the  plants  for  spring  planting,  in  greenhouses  or  early 
hotbeds.  Lettuce  may  be  transplanted  to  the  open  ground  as 
soon  as  the  soil  will   work  easily  in  the  spring,    but  it  should 


154  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

be  well  hardened  off  before  being-  planted  out;  it  will,  however, 
stand  quite  a  severe  freeze  if  properly  hardened  off,  and,  as  in 
the  case  with  many  other  crops,  the  plants  may  be  covered 
with  earth  on  the  approach  of  hard  frost,  providing  it  does 
not  remain   over  them   more  than  a  day  or  two.     In  the    open 


Fig.  80.    Black-seeded  Simpson  Lettuce.     (Typical  curly  sort.) 

ground,  lettuce  plants  should  be  set  out  about  twelve  inches 
apart  each  way.  It  is  frequently  grown  between  rows  of  early 
cabbage,  cauliflower  or  other  plants  where  it  fills  up  other- 
wise unoccupied  space  and  comes  off  the  land  long  before  other 
crops  need  the  room  it  occupies.  For  late  use,  the  seed  is 
often  sown  in  the  open  ground  in  drills  one  foot  apart  and 
the  plants  thinned  to  the  same  distance  apart.  It  is  custom- 
ary also  in  the  home  garden  to  sow  the  seed  and  then  cut  off 
the  young  plants  as  soon  as  they  are  large  enough  to  use: 
such  lettuce,  however,  is  not  nearly  so  good  as  head  lettuce 
where  the  center  is  white,  crisp  and  tender.  It  is  a  far  better 
plan  to  thin  out  the  young  plants  so  that  they  stand  three  or 
four  inches  apart  in  the  rows  and  in  cutting  continue  the 
thinning  process  so  that  the  later  plants  will  form  good  heads. 
Of  course,  it  is  necessary  to  make  successive  sowings  of  let- 
tuce in  order  to  have  it  fit  for  table  use  over  a  long  season. 
Like  all  leaf  crops,  lettuce  needs  plenty  of  rich,  easily    avail- 


LETTUCE. 


155 


able  nitrogenous  manure  and  responds  very  quickly  to  small 
applications  of  nitrate  of  soda. 

Varieties.  There  are  many  varieties  and  each  year  finds 
many  additions  to  the  list  of  those  offered  by  seedsmen.  In 
the  matter  of  quality,  those  forming  a  head  like  the  cabbage 
have  the  preference.  Varieties  that  form  only  a  bunch  of 
leaves  are  largely  raised  by  market  gardeners  to  supply  the 
common  demand,  since  they  are  more  easily  grown  and  are 
less  liable  to  injury  in  handling  than  the  heading  varieties. 
Some  of  the  most  desirable  kinds  are  as  follows: 


Fig   81.    Head  Lettuce. 

White  Tennis  Ball,  or  Boston  Market.  A  variety 
adapted  for  early  spring  use  only.  It  forms  a  solid  head  of 
medium  size  but  quickly  goes  to  seed  in  warm  weather. 

Hanson.  Forms  large  solid  heads  and  isageneral  favor- 
ite.    It  is  an  excellent  spring  or  summer  lettuce. 

Black-Seeded  Simpson.  A  popular  forcing  variety  that 
stands  well  without  going  to  seed  and  does  not  form  a  head 
but  a  mass  of  curled  leaves. 

Grand  Rapids.  A  very  desirable  lettuce  for  forcing, and 
it  resembles  Black-Seeded  Simpson. 

Black-Seeded  Tennis  Ball.  A  popular  sort  for  forcing 
or  early  garden  culture.  It  forms  a  large,  solid  head  and  is 
highly  esteemed. 

Salamander.     A  good  heading  sort  for  summer  use. 


156  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

Buttercup.  Bright  chrome  yellow  in  color,  very  beau- 
tiful: tender  and  desirable.     A  popular  new  sort. 

Insects  and  Diseases.  There  are  few  insects  or  diseases  that 
seriously  affect  the  lettuce  when  grown  outdoors.  In  the 
greenhouse  and  occasionally  in  the  hotbeds,  it  is  sometimes 
attacked  by  the  aphis  and  mildew.  For  remedies  for  aphis, 
see  chapter  on  insects.  Mildew  is  most  abundant  where  the 
conditions  for  healthy  growth  are  wanting. 

M ART YNI A .     ( Marty nia  p robosidea, ) 

Nativeof  Southwestern  United  States. — Annual. — A  coarse- 
growing,  spreading  plant,  having  a 
peculiar  shaped  fruit  that  is  used  for 
pickles.  The  flowers  are  large,  ir- 
regular and  rather  pretty.  The  fruit 
is  tender  when  young  but  is  nearly  as 
hard  as  horn  when  ripe.  The  seeds- 
are  black  with  a  rough  surface. 

Culture.     This  is  a  plant  of  the  easi- 
est culture.     The  seed  should  be   sown 

as  soon  as  the  soil  settles  in  the  spring, 
Fig.  I   .-Martynia.  ^    hmg     abQut  three    feet    apart  eacll 

way.      Where  seed  are  allowed  to  ripen,  plants    usually  ap- 
pear the  following  spring.       There  is  only  one  variety. 

MUSKMELON.     (  Cucumis  melo. ) 

Native  of  the  warm  parts  of  Asia. — Annual. — Cultivated 
from  a  very  remote  period  of  antiquity.  It  resembles  the  cu- 
cumber in  habit  of  growth,  and.  like  it  and  the  squash,  the 
different  sexes  of  flowers  are  separate  on  the  same  plant  and 
in  nature  require  the  agency  of  insects  to  pollenize  them; 
however,  they  may  be  pollenized  by  hand,  and  the  directions 
given  for  pollenizing  cucumber  flowers  apply  here.  In  quite 
a  few  cases  the  flowers  of  the  muskmelon  are  perfect,  that  is, 
have  both  stamens  and  pistils;  but  it  is  likely  that  even  in 
these  cases  cross-fertilization  is  necessary.  The  seed  re- 
sembles cucumber  seed  in  size  and  form.  The  fruit  varies  in 
shape  but  is  commonly  round  or  oval.  The  flesh  varies  in 
color  from  nearly  white  to  deep   orange.      This  is  one  of   the 


MUSKMELON. 


157 


most  healthful  and  delicious  of  fruits,  and  our  warm  bright 
summers  are  especially  favorable  to  its  growth.  As  far  north 
as  Minneapolis,  this  fruit  is  often  so  plentiful  as  to  cause  a  glut 
in  the  market. 

Culture.  The  culture  of  muskmeloas  is  practically  the  same 
as  that  recommended  for  cucumbers,  and  the  insect  pests  are 
also  the  same.  A  warm  soil  is.  if  anything,  more  desirable 
for  this  crop  than  for  cucumbers,  and  in  moist  seasons  it  does 
especially  well  on  very  sandy  land,  providing  it  has  been 
manured.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  pinch  off  the  ends  of  the  vines 
after  they  have  grown  several  feet  for  the  purpose  of  forcing 
out  the  laterals  on  which  the  fruit  is  borne,  although  this  is 
not  customary  in  growing  them  on  a  large  scale.     Late  settings 


Fig.  83,-Musk  Melons.     1. -California  Citron.    2.- White  Japan.    3.-MMer's 

Cream.  4.— Extra  Early. 
of  fruit  may  be  removed  to  advantage  in  September,  as  they 
then  have  not  time  to  mature.  The  fruit  is  not  ripe  until  the 
stem  separates  easily  from  it.  Fruit  ripened  on  the  vineis  of 
the  best  quality,  but  for  shipping  purposes  it  should  be  picked 
when  still  green.  Almost  without  exception,  melons  with 
finely  netted  skins  are  of  better  quality  than  those  with 
smooth  or  coarsely  netted  skins.  So  true  is  this  that  buyers 
refuse  to  buy  the  latter.  In  order  to  make  the  fruit  ripen 
earlier  and  to  avoid  the  attacks  of  the  striped  beetle,  the 
plants  are  often  started  in  pots  and  on  sods  in  hotbeds  or 
frames,  as  recommended  for  cucumbers.  It  is  a  good  plan 
also  to  place  a  piece  of  glass  or  board  under  the  melons  where 


158  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

the  best  quality  is  desired,  since  this  keeps  them  off  the  ground, 
and  they  ripen  more  evenly  in  consequence. 

Varieties.  Melons  vary  much  in  size,  form,  color  of  skin 
and  flesh  and  in  quality.  There  are  many  kinds,  but  only  a 
few  are  referred  to  here. 

Christiana,  or  Early  Christiana  is  a  popular  melon, 
of   extra  good  quality,  with  salmon  colored  flesh. 

Osage,  or  Miller's  Cream.  A  large  melon  having  firm 
salmon  colored  flesh,  very  productive  and  highly  esteemed  for 
the  market  and  home  garden.  Perhaps,  the  best  shipping  sort 
now  grown. 

California  Citron  muskmelon  is  a  variety  especially 
popular  in  some  northern  markets  for  home  market  and  for 
shipping. 

Emerald  Gem  is  a  very  prolific  melon, with  small  but  very 
superior  fruit  that  is  valuable  for  home  use. 

WATERMELON.     (CitruUis  vulgaris. ) 

Native  of  Africa. — Annual. — A  vine  of  the  same  general 
habit  as  the  muskmelon,  but  the  leaves  are  deeply  lobed,  and 
the  whole  plant  is  covered  with  soft,  grayish  hairs  that  give  it 
a  grayish  aspect.  The  flowers  are  the  same  in  structure  as 
those  of  the  cucumber  or  muskmelon.  The  seeds  are  large 
but  vary  much  in  size,  color  and  markings.  The  fruit  varies 
in  color  of  skin  from  pale  yellow  to  deep  green  and  is  often 
mottled;  the  flesh  varies  from  white  to  pink  or  yellow.  Some 
are  tasteless  and  insipid,  and  others  are  sugary  and  refresh- 
ing. The  fruit  often  weighs  as  much  as  fifty  pounds  in  good 
seasons  when  grown  in  favorable  locations,  even  in  the  ex- 
treme Northern  states. 

Culture.  The  method  of  culture  is  the  same  as  for  the 
cucumber  and  muskmelon,  with  the  exception  that  the  vines 
should  not  be  pinched,  and  they  require  rather  more  room  in 
which  to  grow.  They  should  be  planted  about  eight  feet  apart 
each  way. 

Varieties.  There  are  many  kinds  of  watermelon  offered  by 
seedsmen,  differing  from  one  another  in  many  particulars. 
Several  of  the  most  esteemed  are  the  following: 


MUSHROOM.  159 

Dark  and  Light  Icing,  or  Ice  Rind.     The  best  for  gen- 
eral use.     Well  adapted  for  home  use  or  marketing. 


Fig.  84.— Varieties  of   Watermelons.     1.— Iron  Clad.    2.— Cuban  Queen.    3.— 
Light  lee  Rind.    4.— Monte  Cristo.    5.— Dark  Ice  Rind. 

Hungarian.  A  melon  of  good  quality  and  adapted  for 
the  home  garden. 

Volga.  A  variety  with  light-colored  early  skin  and  very 
red  flesh.  Fruit  rather  small  but  of  excellent  quality  and  very 
productive. 

Citron,  or  Preserving  Melon.  Resembles  watermelon,  but  the 
flesh  is  hard  and  only  lit  for  preserves.  There  is  but  a  limited 
demand  for  it. 

MU  SHROOM  S .     ( Aga  ricus  c« mpest  vis. ) 

There  are  many  edible  wild  mushrooms,  but  the  species 
referred  to  above  is  the  kind  commonly  cultivated.  The  part 
eaten  is  really  the  fruit  bearing  portion  and  not,  as  many  sup- 
pose, the  plant  itself.     The  true  plant  is  the  white   network  of 


160  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

fibres  which  grow  in  the  soil,    and  it  is  this  part   that  is  used 
in  propagating  them. 

Culture.  The  cultivation  of  the  mushroom  is  often  attend- 
ed with  uncertainty.  It  is,  however,  being  grown  on  an  in- 
creasingly larger  scale,  and  the  demand  for  it  constantly  in- 
creases. The  conditions  essential  to  success  in  growing  it 
are  a  rich  artificial  soil  and  a  steady  temperature  of  from 
50  to  75  degrees.  It  is  for  the  purpose  of  securing  this  lat- 
ter requisite  that  cellars  and  old  caves  are  often  utilized  in 
its  culture,  as  light  is  not  necessary.  Horse  manure  is  a 
practically  indispensible  material  for  the  growth  of  mush- 
rooms. If  possible,  it  should  be  from  animals  fed  on  rich, 
nitrogenous  food  and  as  free  from  straw  or  other  litter  as  it 
oan  be  obtained.  This  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  a 
fourth  or  fifth  part  of  good  garden  soil  and  is  then  ready  to 
go  into  the  beds.  Care  should  betaken  that  the  beds  are  in  a 
well  drained  damp  place.  They  may  be  of  any  size  or  shape  de- 
sired but  should  be  about  ten  inches  deep.  Some  of  the  largest 
growers  use  tiers  of  shelves  or  boxes,  each  one  of  which  is 
eight  or  ten  inches  deep,  into  which  they  put  the  soil.  What- 
ever the  shape  of  the  beds,  the  soil  should  be  packed  into  them 
firmly  and  evenly  and  be  left  smooth  on  the  outside.  A  ther- 
mometer should  then  be  inserted  in  the  center  of  the  mass.  As 
soon  as  fermentation  sets  in,  the  temperature  will  rise  until 
probably  over  100  degrees  will  be  indicated,  and  when  it  falls  to 
80  degrees  the  bed  is  ready  to  receive  the  spawn.  This  may 
sometimes  be  obtained  from  old  hotbeds,  but  it  is  best  to  de- 
pend on  that  sold  by  seedsmen,  as  it  is  more  certain  to  be  free 
from  other  fungi.  The  operation  of  spawning  consists  in  put- 
ting pieces  of  the  spawn  bricks  the  size  of  small  hens'  eggs  in 
holes  made  about  two  inches  deep  and  ten  or  twelve  inches 
apart.  Afterwards  the  holes  should  be  filled  with  the  soil  and 
the  surface  firmed  and  smoothed  off. 

If  the  work  has  been  well  done  and  the  conditions  are  fav- 
orable, the  spawn  should  commence  to  grow  in  seven  or  eight 
days;  at  the  end  of  that  time,  it  should  be  examined  and  any 
pieces  that  have  not  started  should  be  removed  and  be  re- 
placed by  fresh  spawn.  A  failure  in  germination  is  indicated 
by  the  absence  of  white  threads  in  the  manure  around  the 
spawn.     When  the    spawn    has    nicely  started    and   begins  to 


MUSHROOM.  161 

show  itself  on  the  surface,  the  bed  should  be  covered  with  a 
layer  one  inch  thick  of  fine,  slightly  moist  soil,  which  should 
be  pressed  down  smoothly  and  firmly.  In  damp  cellars  mush- 
room beds  do  not  need  water,  but  if  the  surface  gets  dry  they 
should  be  watered  with  tepid  water  from  a  fine  rose  watering- 
pot.  The  mushrooms  should  show  in  from  five  to  eight  weeks, 
and  the  bed  continue  to  yield  for  two  or  three  months.  The 
spawn  bricks,  as  they  are  termed  by  seedsmen,  are  simply  flat 
square  pieces  of  a  mixture  of  manure  and  loam  into  which 
spawn  has  been  put  and  has  grown  until  it  fills  the  whole 
piece.  Afterwards  these  bricks  are  dried  and  form  the  mush- 
room bricks  of  commerce. 

Native  Mushrooms.  There  are  quite  a  number  of  native 
mushrooms  that  are  edible,  but  since  there  are  also  several 
poisonous  kinds  one  should  be  careful  about  trying  unknown 


Fig.  85.— Native  Mushrooms.  On  the  left  is  shown  the  giant  puff  ball  (Lyco- 
perdongiganteum);  on  the  right  maned  agaric  (Coprinus  comatus), 
in  various  stages  of  maturity. 

sorts.  Among  the  edible  kinds  are  the  several  sorts  known  as 
puff  balls  [Lycoperdon.)  When  these  first  appear,  they  are 
white  balls  of  a  fleshy  texture  with  little  or  no  stalk:  as  they 
ripen,  the  flesh  turns  gradually  to  a  dark  brown,  and  finally 
the  spores  are  ejected  by  the  ball  being  crushed  or  naturally 
breaking  open.  They  are  not  fit  to  eat  after  the  flesh  begins 
to  turn  brown.  The  smaller  sorts  are  most  common,  but  the 
giant  puff  ball  is  occasionally  met  with  and  is  often  ten  or 
more  inches  in  diameter. 

Another  common  native  mushroom  is  shown  in  figure  85. 


162  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

It  has  a  stem  several  inches  high,  but  the  top  does  not  expand 
and  is  one  of  the  most  delicious  of  all  the  mushroom  tribe  when 
young.  It  is  called  the  maned  agaric  {Coprinus  comatus. )  It 
grows  in  waste  and  grassy  places,  lawns  and  meadows.  The 
gills  (layers  on  the  under  part  of  the  head)  are  at  first  white 
or  pink,  melting  into  an  inky  fluid-like  substance  when  more 
mature.  Only  young  specimens  are  desirable  for  table  use. 
Little  attention  has  ever  been  paid  in  this  country  to 
growing  our  native  species.  They  could  undoubtedly  be 
propagated  by  digging  up  some  of  the  earth  where  they  grow 
abundantly  and  mixing  it  with  the  soil  where  it  is  desired  to 
grow  them.  The  kinds  mentioned  mature  in  the  latter  part  of 
summer  and  are  especially  abundant  in  old  pastures  or  other 
places  containing  much  decaying  organic  matter  and  during 
moist  weather.  If  an  attempt  was  made  to  grow  them,  it 
would  probably  be  necessary  to  keep  the  ground  moist  all 
summer  to  secure  the  best  results. 

ONIONS.     {Allium  Cepa.) 

Native  of  Central  or  Western  Asia. — Biennial,  sometimes 
perennial. — The  original  home  of  the  onion  is  not  known. 
It  has  no  true  stem,  but  this  is  represented  by  the  base  of  the 
bulb.  The  form,  color  and  shape  of  onions  vary  greatly  in 
different  varieties.  The  free  portion  of  the  leaves  is  elongated 
and  swollen  in  the  lower  part.  The  flowers,  which  are  white 
or  lilac  in  color,  are  borne  in  dense,  round  heads  on  long, 
slender,  hollow  stalks;  sometimes,  instead  of  flowers,  a  head 
of  small  bulbs  is  produced  and  no  seed  at  all.  This  may  oc- 
cur occasionally  in  all  kinds  but  is  the  almost  invariable 
characteristic  of  the  tree  onion.  The  seeds  are  black,  angular 
and  flatfish.  Usually  the  plant  after  seeding  dies  and  disap- 
pears entirely,  but  sometimes  seed  onions  produce  peculiar 
pointed  bulbs,  called  cloves,  as  well  as  seeds.  Such  plants 
may  be  considered  perennial  as  well  as  the  potato  onion, 
which  never  seeds  and  is  propagated  by  the  division  of  its 
bulbs.  The  onion  has  been  cultivated  from  remote  antiquity, 
and  there  are  very  many  varieties  that  have  been  developed 
for  different  purposes.  These  are  almost  without  exception 
grown  for  their  bulbs,  but  in  a  few  cases  no  bulbs  are  formed. 
The    bulbs    in  color  are  white,    red  and  yellow,    with   inter- 


ONIONS.  163 

mediate  shades.  In  the  successful  raising  of  the  onion,  good 
judgment  and  experience  plays  an  important  part.  Perhaps 
no  vegetable  crop  is  more  certain  to  pay  the  skilful  grower  for 
his  time  and  labor  and  none  more  liable  to  cause  trouble  to 
the  careless  beginner,  and  yet  its  cultivation  is  quite  simple. 
The  prices  for  onions  vary  greatly.  They  seldom  are  so  cheap 
as  to  make  the  crop  unprofitable:  but  occasionally  they 
get  down  to  fifteen  cents  per  bushel,  at  which  price  they  can- 
not be  grown  at  a  profit.  There  are  few  animals  that  eat 
onions,  and  if  not  sold  they  cannot  be  fed  to  stock  as  is  the 
case  with  most  vegetables.  As  a  money  crop  for  careful 
growers  in  many  sections  they  are  among  the  best,  and  if  a 
reasonable  amount  of  them  is  raised  each  year  without  regard 
to  the  price  the  preceding  year,  it  is  a  crop  that  will  generally 
average  a  good  profit. 

Land.  Onions  may  be  raised  on  any  good  retentive  soil. 
Sandy  land  is  too  apt  to  dry  out  in  summer  for  best  results. 
On  drained  muck  land,  large  crops  may  easily  be  raised;  al- 
though onions  grown  on  such  soil  are  often  a  little  looser  in 
texture  than  those  raised  on  drier  land.  The  land  should  be 
rich,  fine  and  free  from  weeds  and  any  strawy  manure  or  other 
material  that  would  interfere  with  close  cultivation.  Too 
much  stress  cannot  be  put  on  having  the  land  free  from 
weed  seeds,  since  it  is  a  crop  that  requires  much  hand  weeding 
and  the  plants  are  quite  delicate  when  young.  The  soil  should 
be  rather  firm  for  onions  and  plowed  in  the  fall  rather  than  in 
the  spring.  Fall  plowing  leaves  the  soil  firm  and  in  excellent 
condition  for  this  crop.  Sometimes  when  the  land  is  rich  it 
is  desirable  not  to  plow  at  all,  especially  if  it  was  in  onions 
the  preceding  year,  but  instead  to  make  a  seed  bed  by  the  use 
of  a  disk  or  other  good  harrow  and  plant  at  once;  in  fact,  bet- 
ter results  will  generally  be  obtained  from  spring  harrowing 
than  from  spring  plowing  of  land  to  be  used  for  onions.  Of 
course,  if  the  land  is  to  be  harrowed  only  to  prepare  it  for  the 
crop,  it  is  very  important,  if  manure  is  to  be  used,  that  this 
be  very  fine,  so  that  the  harrow  will  cover  it. 

Old  land  is  generally  preferred  for  onions,  and  this 
crop  is  often  successfully  raised  on  the  same  land  for 
many  years.  From  the  fact  that  onion  land  is  always  most 
carefully  attended  to  and  gets  much  manure  and  tillage,  it  is 


164  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

generally  in  better  condition  for  onions  than  land  in  any 
other  crop.  However,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  occasionally  change 
the  land  for  onions,  since  on  new  land  there  is  far  less  danger 
from  disease  and  insect  enemies  than  on  old  land.  Land  that 
has  grown  any  crop  requiring  high  culture  and  heavy  manur- 
ing and  is  free  from  weed  seeds  will  generally  grow  good 
onions.  Sometimes  onions  are  raised  on  newly  cleared  wood- 
land or  prairie  sod  with  greatest  success,  simply  by  sowing 
the  seed  broadcast  and  harrowing  it  in:  but  this  is  seldom 
attempted. 

Sowing  the  Seed.  Before  sowing  the  seed  the  land  should 
be  made  very  smooth.  It  is  important  to  get  the  seed  in  the 
ground  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible.  As  soon  as  the 
land  can  be  worked  in  the  spring,  the  seed  should  be  sown, 
the  earlier  the  better.  The  seed  of  some  kinds  can  be  sown  in 
the  autumn  to  advantage,  but  on  land  that  is  inclined  to 
'"bake"  it  is  a  bad  practice  and  is  seldom  attempted.  There 
is, however,  a  fair  chance  of  a  crop  even  if  the  seed  is  sown  as 
late  as  the  first  of  June, but  a  first-class  crop  from  seed  sown  as 
late  as  this  is  almost  out  of  the  question.  By  the  middle  of 
May,  all  onion  seed  should  be  in  the  ground.  The  dis- 
tance apart  of  the  rows  will  depend  somewhat  on  the  variety 
grown,  but  for  ordinary  purposes  the  seed  should  be  sown  in 
rows  fifteen  inches  apart  and  covered  one  inch  deep.  About 
eighteen  good  seeds  should  be  sown  to  each  foot  of  row, which 
will  make  it  necessary  to  use  four  or  five  pounds  of  seed  per 
acre.  If  there  is  danger  of  much  loss  from  the  depredations 
of  the  onion  maggot. more  than  this  amount  of  seed  should  be 
used:  where  maggots  are  very  troublesome,  some  growers  use  as 
much  as  six  pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  The  seed  sower  should 
be  carefully  tested  on  a  floor  or  other  smooth  surface  before 
using  it  in  the  field  to  see  how  it  works.  It  is  very  important 
to  know  the  germinating  qualities  of  the  seed  sown,  since  if  it 
is  of  low  germination  more  must  be  sown  than  if  of  best  qual- 
ity. Ninety  per  cent  of  good  onion  seed  ought  to  germinate 
if  the  conditions  are  favorable.  It  is  important  to  closely  study 
these  matters,  as  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  land  well  stocked 
with  plants  and  yet  not  over  stocked.  It  is  better  to  fail  of 
getting  quite  so  much  seed  on  the  land  as  is  desired  than  it  is 
to  get  very  much  more  than  is  wanted,  for  in  the  first  case  the 


ONIONS.  165 

onions,  although  somewhat  scattering-,  will  be  of  good  size 
while  if  the  plants  are  too  thick  they  must  be  thinned  out,  or 
the  onions  will  be  small  and  inferior.  The  work  of  thinning- 
onions  on  a  larg-e  scale  is  a  very  expensive  operation,  and 
every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  avoid  having  to  do  it.  If 
the  seed  is  sown  only  a  little  thicker  than  the  plants  ought  to 
stand.it  is  a  good  plan  instead  of  thinning  them  out  to  put  on 
an  extra  dressing  of  some  quick  acting, easily  applied  manure, 
such  as  hen  manure,  which  will  probably  make  it  possible  for 
the  land  to  mature  the  whole  crop  in  good  shape.  Onions 
have  the  quality  of  crowding  out  to  the  sides  of  the  row  and 
on  top  of  one  another,  so  that  they  may  grow  pretty  thick  and 
still  be  of  good  size,  providing  other  conditions  are  fav- 
orable to  their  development.  It  is  important  to  have  the  seed 
sown  in  straight  rows.  If  the  first  row  is  laid  off  with  a  line 
or  otherwise  made  straight,  the  subsequent  rows  are  easily 
made  parallel  to  it  by  means  of  the  marker  on  the  seed  sower. 
If  there  are  found  to  be  some  vacancies  in  the  rows  aftsr  the 
onions  appear, these  may  be  filled  by  sowing  onion  seed  in  them 
by  hand:  late  in  the  season  such  vacancies  maybe  filled  with 
carrot  seed. 

Cultivation.  As  soon  as  the  plants  commence  to  break  the 
surface  soil,  cultivation  should  be  commenced  with  a  hand  cul- 
tivator that  will  work  both  sides  of  the  row  at  one  time  and 
throw  a  little  earth  from  the  plant:  hand  weeding  should  fol- 
low at  once.  At  the  second  hoeing,  the  plants  being  now  pretty 
strong,  the  soil  should  be  cultivated  somewhat  deeper.  This 
will  enable  a  careful  man  to  work  the  soil  very  close  to  the 
plants.  Onions  naturally  grow  in  the  surface  of  the  land  and 
not  below  it  and  should  never  be  hilled  up.  The  onion  crop 
should  be  hoed  and  weeded  as  often  as  the  weeds  appear  or 
whenever  the  ground  packs  hard  around  the  growing  plants. 
The  weeds  should  be  destroyed  when  small.  This  means  that 
until  early  summer  the  onions  should  be  hoed  about  once  every 
two  weeks.  When  th3  plants  get  so  large  that  they  will  no 
longer  pass  under  the  straddle  cultivator  without  being  bruised 
the  work  <tf  cultivation  must  be  continued  between  the  rows 
until  the  bulbs  commence  to  form,  after  which  it  is  not  a  good 
plan  to  work  rcmch  among  them,  since  pushing  the  tops  about 
tends  to  make  them  die  down  quicker  than    otherwise.     When 


J  66  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

the  onions  are  about  the  size  of  a  half  dollar  and  before  the 
tops  fall  over,  it  is  a  good  plan,  if  the  land  is  not  very  rich, 
to  apply  some  quick-acting-  fertilizer  such  as  hen  manure  or  a 
commercial  fertilizer  broadcast  over  the  crop.  This  should 
be  done  just  before  or  during  a  rain  if  possible.  For  this  pur- 
pose dry,  fine  hen  manure  is  good,  but  any  rich,  nitrogenous 
fertilizer  will  answer. 

If  the  plants  are  going  to  make  good  onions  they  will  be- 
come weak  in  the  neck  just  above  the  bulb  when  nearly  grown 
and  fall  flat  on  the  ground,  where  they  should  be  allowed  to 
lie  undisturbed  until  the  tops  and  roots  are  entirely  dried, 
when  the  bulbs  are  easily  pulled  out  of  the  ground  with  a  rake 
or  onion  puller.  In  the  vicinity  of  St.  Paul,  this  time  will  be 
in  August  or  the  early  part  of  September.  About  four  rows 
of  bulbs  should  be  thrown  together,  and  they  should  beturned 
with  a  rake  every  few  days  until  perfectly  dry  and  then  be  put 
under  cover  to  protect  them  from  rain.  If  they  are  allowed  to 
get  wet  several  times  after  being  pulled,  the  outer  skins  are 
liable  to  come  off  and  thus  make  the  bulbs  unsightly.  If  not 
pulled  for  some  little  time  after  they-are  ripe,  especially  if  the 
season  is  moist,  new  roots  are  very  sure  to  start  and  the  bulbs 
become  grown  so  firmly  into  the  soil  that  the  work  of  pulling 
and  drying  them  is  increased.  The  work  of  cutting  or  twist- 
ing off  the  tops,  called  topping,  may  be  left  until  the  onions 
are  marketed,  but  they  will  be  found  to  keep  much  better  if 
"topped,"  since  if  the  tops  are  left  on  they  prevent  a  free  cir- 
culation of  the  air  through  the  bulbs. 

"Scallions"  or  "Thick  Necks."  Sometimes,  too,  the  tops  of  the 
plants  do  not  die  down  as  they  should  but  remain  green  and 
continue  to  grow  after  the  bulbs  are  well  formed,  and  become 
what  arecalled  "scallions"  or"thick necks."  This  is  generally 
due  to  the  planting  of  poorly  selected  seed, but  sometimes  it  is 
not  to  be  accounted  for.  In  such  cases  it  is  generally  recom- 
mended to  break  the  tops  down, which  certainly  does  no  harm, 
but  it  is  of  doubtful  value.  A  better  way  is  to  pull  such 
plants  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  grow  vigorously  after  once 
having  formed  good  bulbs,  dry  them  as  much  as  possible  and 
remove  the  tops.  However,  such  onions  do  not  generally 
keep  well  and  had  better  be  used  during  autumn  and  early 
winter. 


ONIONS.  167 

Keeping  Onions.  Onions  should  be  kept  in  a  dry, cool  place. 
In  a  damp  cellar  they  will  sprout  and  grow  no  matter  if  the 
temperature  there  is  near  the  freezing  point.  They  will  stand 
quite  a  little  frost  without  much  injury,  but  if  frozen  and 
thawed  several  times  they  become  soft  and  do  not  keep  well 
but  start  to  grow  very  quickly.  The  best  way  of  keeping- 
onions  is  in  a  cold,  dry  room  in  slatted  bins  or  on  shelves 
so  arranged  that  the  air  can  circulate  through  them.  A  very 
practical  plan  is  to  put  them  in  barrels  without  heads,  having 
holes  in  the  bottom  and  sides  and  pile  these  on  top  of  one  an- 
other two  tiers  high,  first  putting  down  scantling  or  other 
material  to  allow  the  air  to  circulate  under  and  around  them. 
If  onions  are  frozen  solid  in  the  autumn  and  kept  so  all 
winter,  they  will  come  out  bright  in  the  spring.  A  good  way 
to  do  this  is  to  lay  them  eighteen  inches  thick  on  the  floor  of 
a  loft  and  cover  with  a  foot  or  so  of  hay.  Thus  arranged 
they  will  not  freeze  until  severe  weather  sets  in  and  will  re- 
main frozen  until  spring.  They  may  also  be  put  in  water- 
proof bins  in  the  field  where  grown  and  treated  in  the  same 
way.  They  should  never  be  handled  when  frozen,  as  they  are 
apt  to  bruise.  Freezing  and  thawing  several  times  seriously 
injures  them,  but  if  kept  frozen  and  gradually  thawed  out 
they  come  out  in  very  nice  condition.  After  thawing  out,  they 
will  not  keep  well  but  quickly  start  to  grow,  and  should  be 
disposed  of  at  once. 

Onion  sets  is  a  term  applied  to  small  onions  which  are 
planted  out  in  the  spring  instead  of  seeds.  If  onions  under 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter  are  planted  out  in  the 
spring,  they  do  not  go  to  seed  as  do  larger  onions  but  form  a 
new  bulb  and  form  it  much  earlier  than  they  are  formed  when 
grown  from  seed.  Taking  advantage  of  this  fact,  it  has  be- 
come a  common  practice  to  raise  these  small  onions  (sets)  and 
plant  them  out  for  early  summer  use.  It  does  not  matter  how 
small  the  set  is,  and  one  the  size  of  a  peaisasgood  as  if  larger. 
The  size  generally  preferred  is  about  one-half  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter. 

Planting  onion  sets.  The  method  of  planting  sets  is  to  have 
the  land  in  the  same  condition  as  recommended  for  onion  seed 
and  plant  the  sets  as  soon  as  the  soil  can  be  worked  in  the 
spring.     In  doing  this  mark  off  the  land  in  drills  twelve  inches 


168  VEGETABLE  GARDENING, 

apart  and  push  each  set  down  firmly,  three  inches  deep  into 
the  mellow  soil,  and  three  inches  apart.  This  is  done  by  hand 
and  each  set  is  handled  separately,  so  as  to  have  them  right 
side  up.  The  drill  is  then  closed  in  with  the  feet  or  rake,  so 
that  each  set  is  entirely  covered  up.  If  the  ground  is  dry.  it  is 
sometimes  rolled  to  make  it  still  more  compact  around  the 
bulbs.  As  soon  as  the  rows  can  be  seen,  the  wheel  hoe  is 
used,  and  the  plants  kept  free  from  weeds  and  the  soil  well 
stirred.  By  this  treatment  they  will  be  of  good  table  size  by 
the  first  of  July,  and  somemaybe  marketed  in  bunches  in  a  green 
state  in  June.  Onion  sets  seldom,  if  ever,  fail  to  produce 
good  crops  and  are  well  adapted  for  use  in  the  home  garden 
and  by  those  who  will  not  take  the  pains  necessary  to  grow 
onions  from  seed.  No  matter  how  poor  the  soil  or  the  culti- 
vation, where  the  sets  are  planted,  they  always  increase  in 
size  and  ripen  early.  There  is  no  danger  of  their  being  in- 
jured by  freezing  after  being  planted.  From  six  to  ten  bushels 
of  sets  are  required  per  acre,  depending  on  their  size. 

The  raising  of  onion  sets  is  carried  on  to  a  large  extent  in 
some  localities,  and  it  is  a  crop  that  requires  much  skill  in 
handling.  Sandy  soil  of  rather  inferior  quality  but  free  from, 
weeds  and  in  fine  tilth  is  best  for  this  purpose.  To  keep  the 
sets  from  growing  too  large,  it  is  customary  to  plant  from 
thirty  to  fifty  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  and  not  plant  it  until 
the  latter  part  of  May.  This  treatment  crowds  the  seedlings 
so  that  they  cannot  grow  large.  In  sowing  the  seed,  it  is  best 
to  go  over  the  rows  with  the  seed  sower  three  or  four  times, 
sowing  only  a  part  of  the  seed  each  time.  This  spreads  the 
seed  out  in  wide  drills  and  permits  of  more  even  work  than 
would  be  possible  were  it  attempted  to  sow  all  the  seed  by 
going  over  the  rows  once.  If  onion  sets  grow  too  large  it  is 
often  almost  impossible  to  use  them  for  any  purpose,  since 
they  are  too  small  to  sell  well  except  for  pickling,  and  the  de- 
mand for  this  purpose  is  very  limited.  On  this  account,  if  it 
is  feared  the  sets  will  grow  too  large,  they  are  pulled  when  of 
proper  size.  The  further  cultivation  of  plants  for  sets  is  the 
same  as  for  a  field  crop  of  onions.  The  sets  should  be  taken 
up  in  August,  or  as  soon  as  ripe,  with  a  rake  or  onion  set 
puller.  When  dry  they  should  be  stored,  tops  and  all.  about 
four  inches  deep,  in  a  loft,  where  they  should  be  covered  with  a 


ONIONS.  16£ 

foot  of  hay  or  straw  on  the  approach  of  hard  frost  and  left 
until  wanted  for  planting  in  the  spring.  In  other  words,  they 
should  be  kept  frozen  all  winter.  Treated  in  this  way,  the  sets 
will  require  to  be  cleaned  in  the  spring,  which  is  done  by  rub- 
bing them  in  the  hands  to  loosen  the  dirt  and  tops  and  then 
running  them  through  a  fanning  mill.  After  this  they  are  run 
over  a  screen  with  a  three-fourths  inch  mesh  and  only  those 
that  go  through  it  are  saved  for  sets.     This  work  of  cleaning 


Fig.  86.— At  the  left:  onion  plants  as  dug.    On  the  right:  onion  plants  trim- 
med and  ready  for  transplanting. 

may  be  done  in  autumn  before  storing  and  the  sets  mixed  with 
with  chaff  to  aid  in  keeping  them  over  winter. 

Transplanting  onions.  Within  a  few  years  market  gardeners 
have  adopted  a  plan  of  raising  onions  by  sowing  tie  seed  in 
March  in  a  hotbed  and  then  transplanting  the  seedlings  to  the 
open  ground  as  soon  as  it  is  nicely  settled.  This  system  has 
the  merit  of  doing  away  with  the  first  few  weedings  in  the  open 
ground,  reduces  the  expense  of  seed  to  a  minimum  and 
makes  it  possible  to  raise  some  of  the  more  delicate  foreign 
varieties  of  onions,  which  command  the  highest  price  in  the 
market.     It  is  very  doubtful  if  the  common  field  onions  can  be 


170 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


raised  at  a  profit  under  this  method.  The  selection  and  pre- 
paration of  the  land  for  this  purpose  is  the  same  as  for  a  field 
crop.  The  seed  is  sown  inahotbed  in  rows  thre2  inches  apart, 
or  on  a  small  scale  a  few  plants  may  be  raised  in  a  box  in 
the  window  of  the  living  room.  The  soil  for  this  purpose 
should  be  a  somewhat  sandy  loam  of  only  moderate  quality, 
and  that  which  has  no  manure  in  it  is  more  certain  to  grow 
healthy  plants.  If  very  thick  in  the  row.  the  plants  must  be 
thinned  out  so  as  not  to  crowd  one  another  too  much  but  still 


Fig.  87. — Transplanting  onions  in  the  field, 
they  may  be  grown  very  thickly;  as  many  as  twelve  to  fifteen 
plants  to  the  inch  of  row  is  about  right,  and  to  secure  this 
amount  about  twice  as  many  seeds  will  have  to  be  sown  to  the 
inch.  Too  much  importance  cannot  be  attached  to  the  raising 
of  strong  plants,  since  those  that  are  weak  and  spindling  are 
very  certain  to  fail. 

For  a  week  or  two  previous  to  setting  out  the  plants,  they 
should  have  plenty  of  fresh  air.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  re- 
move the  sashes  entirely  from  the  hotbeds  except  when  there  is 
danger  of  frost,  so  that  the  plants  maj  become  hardened  off ,  as 
otherwise  they  are  liable  to  serious  injury  by  freezing    when 


ONIONS.  171 

moved  to  the  open  ground,  although  they  stand  some  freezing 
when  hardened  oft".  They  do  not  transplant  so  well  when  soft 
and  succulent  as  when  properly  hardened.  The  land  and  pre- 
paration required  is  the  same  as  for  a  field  crop  of  onions. 
The  plants  should  be  set  two  or  three  inches  apart  in  rows 
twelve  inches  apart.  Before  setting  them  out  the  tops  should 
be  mostly  cut  off,  and  this  is  especially  important  if  they  are  weak 
and  spindling,  as  they  are  then  very  sure  to  turn  yellow  and 
die.  If  the  roots  are  excessively  long,  they  should  be  shortened 
to  facilitate  transplanting.  The  plants  are  generally  set  in 
small  furrows  opened  with  a  hand  cultivator  or  with  a  mar- 
ker. They  should  have  the  lower  part  of  the  bulb  about 
an  inch  deep  in  the  ground.  The  plants  areeasily  moved,  and  if 
the  soil  is  well  firmed  they  are  very  sure  to  live.  About  150,000 
plants  are  required  for  an  acre,  and  it  is  a  big  job  to  trans- 
plant them.  For  this  purpose  children  can  generally  .be  em- 
ployed at  low  wages  and  they  will  do  the  work  very  well  if 
carefully  looked  after.  The  expense  of  transplanting  is 
variously  estimated  at  from  $25  to  $50  per  acre.  Subsequent 
cultivation  is  the  same  as  for  a  field  crop  of  onions. 

Marketing.  In  a  general  way  the  directions  for  marketing 
onions  apply  to  any  other  crop.  They  should  be  sold  as  soon 
as  a  fair  price  can  be  obtained  for  them  and  not  stored  unless 
there  is  a  good  chance  of  a  rise.  In  some  localities  there  is  a 
large  demand  for  onions  for  bunching  purposes  before  the 
bulbs  are  formed.  In  these  places  it  will  sometimes  pay  to 
})ull  and  sell  the  crop  before  the  tops  have  died  down,  but 
generally  it  should  be  allowed  to  ripen.  The  foreign  kinds, 
such  as  can  only  be  raised  here  by  the  transplanting  method. 
are  generally  highest  in  price  in  early  autumn  and  should 
then  be  sold.  The  tops  should  always  be  removed  before  the 
bulbs  are  marketed,  and  all  small  bulbs  should  be  picked  out 
and  sold  separately  for  pickling  purposes.  Most  markets  pre- 
fer onions  of  medium  size,  globular  rather  than  flat  in 
shape,  and  yellow  or  white  in  color  rather  than  red.  Very 
large  onions  of  the  common  type  are  not  so  salable  as  those 
of  medium  size;  but  of  the  foreign  kinds  the  larger  the  better, 
and  good  specimens  sometimes  weigh  as  much  as  two  pounds. 

Onions  for  the  home  garden  should  be  raised  partly  from  seed 
and  partly  from  sets  or  transplanting.  The  small  onions  picked 


172 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


out  from  one  season's  crop  may  be  used  as  sets  the  next  year. 
Varieties.  For  general  field  crops  in  this  section  no  onion 
is  more  certain  than  Red  Wethersfield.  The  Yellow  Danvers- 
is  the  best  yellow  kind  for  this  purpose.  The  earliest  matur- 
ing-   large    kind  is    Extra    Early  Red.     For    raising-  sets    the 


Fig.  88.— Varieties  of  onions.     1.— Southport  Yellow  Globe.    2.— Silver  Skin. 
3.— Red  Globe.    4. — Prizetaker.    5.— Yellow  Danvers. 

Yellow  Dutch,  called  also  Yellow  Strasburg.  is  the  best  kind, 
but  any  variety  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  For  growing- 
in  hotbeds,  greenhouses  or  window  boxes  to  be  transplanted 
to  the  open  ground,  the  Prizetaker  and  Southport  Yellow 
Globe  are  most  in  demand. 

Potato  Onions  are  always  grown  from  the  bulbs,  which  in- 
crease in  size  and  also  produce  a  cluster  of  bulbs  around  the 
one  that  is  planted.  They  are  especially  adapted  to  early 
marketing. 

Egyptian,  or  Perennial  Tree,  Onion.  This  kind  is  perfectly  hardy 
and  does  not  form  bulbs,  but  the  bleached  part  is  used  in  a. 
green  state.  It  produces  no  seed  but  instead  has  a  small 
cluster  of  bulblets  where  the  seed  cluster  should  be.  These 
bulblets  are  planted  in  September  in  the  same  way  as  recom- 
mended for  onion  sets  and  are  ready  for  use  as  bunch  onions 
very  early  the  following  season. 

Onion  Seed  is  raised  by  planting  out  the  bulbs  in  the  spring 
in  rows  four  feet  apart,  and  for  this  purpose,  bulbs  of  the  greatest 
excellence  should  be  used.  It  is  best  to  set  the  bulbs  about 
six  inches  deep  and  six  inches  apart  in  each  furrow  and  to  do 


OKRA. 


173 


this  planting-  out    very  early  in  the 


spring-.  The  seed  stalks 
will  attain  a  height 
of  about  three  feet. 
The  seed  clusters 
ripen  somewhat  un- 
evenly but  should  be 
gathered  before  they 
are  quite  dry,  or  the 
seed  will  shell  out 
and  be  lost.  When 
gathered, they  should 
be  dried  in  airy 
chambers  and  after- 
wards threshed  out 
and  cleaned  with  a 
fanning  mill  or  they 
may  be  cleaned  by 
being  thrown  into 
water.  The  latter  me- 
thod secures  the  best 
seed.  All  the  seed 
that  is  full  and  plump 

will     sink    in  water, 
Fig.  R9.-Onion  plants  in  flower.  and  ag  the  chaff  and 

lighter  seed  float  they  are  readily 
separated  from  the  good  seed. 
Some  of  the  seed  that  floats  will 
grow,  but  it  is  not  very  desirable 
for  planting.  The  same  land  that 
grows  a  crop  of  onion  seed  is  some- 
times used  for  growing  a  crop  of  cu- 
cumbers or  melons  at  the  same  time, 
since  the  onions  clo  not  shade  the 
land  nor  take  much  nourishment 
from    it    except  early  in  the  spring. 

OKRA.     (Hibiscus  esculentus.) 

Native  of  South  America. — An- 
nual.—The  seed   is    round    and    of  Fig.  90.-Dwarf  pkra. 
medium  size.      It   is  cultivated  for  its  green  seed  pods   which 


174 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


are  highly  esteemsd  for  soups.  Little  grown  except  at 
the  South.  It  is  of  the  easiest  culture.  The  seed  should  be 
sown  about  two  inches  apart  in  rows  two  feet  apart  and  in 
rich, warm  soil, at  about  thetime  forplantingbeans.  The  pods 
are  produced  abundantly  but  are  perhaps  not  as  tender  when 
grown  in  our  dry  atmosphere  as  they  are  in  the  South.  The 
flowers  are  large,  yellow  and  very  pretty. 

The  Varieties  known  as  Dwarf  Green  and  Long  Green  are 
best  adapted  to  our  climate. 


PARSNIPS. 
Native    of    Europe. 


Pastinaea  sativa. ) 


■Biennial. — Cultivated  for  its  long, 
tender  root.  Seeds  light 
brown  in  color,  flat  and 
marked  with  five  raised 
lines  or  ridges.  Seed 
stalks  three  to  five  feet 
high,  with  large  umbels 
of  greenish  flowers. 

Culture.  The  parsnip 
is  grown  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  carrot, 
but  is  rather  more  par- 
ticular about  the  soil 
on  which  it  grows.  Then, 
too,  in  manuring  the 
land  for  this  crop,  it  is 
important  to  use  only 
manure  which  is  well 
rotted,  as  the  applica- 
cation  of  fresh  manure 
seems  to  encourage  the 
formation  of  side  roots. 
On  hard  land,  too,  there 
is  often  a  tendency  for 
the  roots  to  form  side 
roots,  and,  as  what   is 

Fig.  91.—  Parsnip  plant  in  flower.  -,      .       ,   .  ,,        in  .   , 

desired  is  a  rather  thick 

top  root,    side   roots    are  to  be  avoided,  if  possible.     It  is 

important  to  sow  the  seed  early    and    quite   thick    and   then 


PARSLEY. 


175 


to  thin  out  in  order  to  be  sure  of  having  a  good  stand  of 
plants.  The  seed  germinates  rather  slow- 
ly. It  is  also  important  to  have  the  soil 
for  parsnips  deep  and  rich.  It  is  a  very 
hardy  crop  and  may  be  left  in  the  ground 
until  late  autumn  or  even  over  winter.  In 
fact,  many  believe  that  freezing  them  in 
the  ground  improves  their  quality.  They 
may  be  safely  pitted  outdoors  by  putting 
them  in  heaps,  covering  with  a  few  inches 
of  hay  or  straw  and  then  a  foot  of  earth. 
Treated  in  this  way,  they  can  be  taken 
out  at  any  time  during  the  winter  or  early 
spring.  It  is  not  advisable  to  leave  the 
crop  in  the  ground  over  winter,  since  it 
cannot  then  be  dug  out  until  the  frost  is 
out  of  the  ground  in  the  spring,  by 
which  time  the  demand  for  parsnips  will 
have  considerably  lessened.  If  kept  in 
an  ordinary  cellar,  they  should  be  cov- 
ered with  earth  or  sand  to  prevent  wilting. 
In  marketing  the  parsnip,  it  is  often 
customary  after  trimming  off  all  side 
to  sell  them  by  the  basket  without  ,washing. 
better  and  more  equitable  plan  is  to  sell  them  by 
In  some  of  the  best  markets,  the  roots,  after  being 
are  packed  evenly  in  boxes, 


Fig.  92. — Hollow  Crown 
Parsnip. 


shoots, 
A   far 
weight. 

carefully  washed  and  trimmed, 
sixteen  inches  square  and  eight  inches  deep,  which  hold  just  a 
bushel.  Packed  in  this  way,  they  present  a  very  neat  appear- 
ance. 


The  Hollow  Crown  or  Student  parsnip  is  the  best 
kind  to  grow  for  table  use. 

Turnip  Rooted  Parsnip,  which  is  short  and  round,  is 
used  to  some  extent.  It  is  a  good  form  on  light  soils,  but 
for  rich  land  the  Hollow  Crown  is  to  be  preferred. 


PARSLEY.     ( Carum  petroselinum. ) 
Native  of    Sardinia— Biennial.— The  leaves  of  this  plan 


176 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


.are  used  in  a  fresh  state  for  garnishing-    and    seasoning-.      In 

habit  of  growth 
parsley  resem- 
bles the  parsnip. 
to  which  it  is 
closely  related. 
The  leaves,  how- 
ever, are  vari- 
ously cut  and 
divided.  A  few 
varieties  are 
grown  for  their 
Fig.  93.— Fine  Curled  Parsley.  fleshy   roots. 

Culture.  Parsley  is  grown  in  much  the  same  manner  as 
the  parsnip,  and,  like  it.  its  seed  germinates  rather  slowly. 
The  seed  is  often  sown  for  winter  and  early  spring  use  in 
greenhouses  and  hotbeds.  The  leaves  may  be  used  as  soon 
as  big  enough.  The  roots  may  be  taken  up  in  autumn  and 
grown  on  in  a  greenhouse  or  in  a  box  in  a  sunny  window  for 
a  winter  supply.  The  demand  is  quite  limited.  It  is  sold  in 
-small  bunches  and  may  be  found  in  the  larger  markets  at  any 
season  of  the  year.  It  seldom  comes  through  our  winters 
safely  when  left  exposed  outdoors  but  sometimes  does  so  when 
well  protected. 

The  Varieties  commonly  grown  are  the  Double  Curled  and 
Eire  Leaved,  either  of  which  makes  a  border  that  is  pretty 
■enough  for  a  flower  garden,  and  it  is  often  used  as  an  edging 
for  small  kitchen  gardens. 


PEAS. 


Pisum  sativum. 


The  pea  is  an  annual  plant  of  uncertain  origin,  but  prob- 
ably a  native  of  central  Europe.  The  flowers  are  either  white 
or  violet  colored,  but  the  desirable  kinds,  almost  without  ex- 
ception, bear  white  flowers. 

Varieties  of  peas  are  divided  into  three  classes,  those 
having  wrinkled  seed,  those  having  round,  small  seed  and 
thosehaving  edible  pods.  Wrinkled  seeded  varieties  do  not 
germinate  as  well  as  the  smooth  skinned  or  round  sorts,  nor 
do  their  germinating  powers  last  so  long,  nor  are  they  so 
hardy  in  resisting  the  adverse  conditions  of  early  spring.     On 


PEAS. 


177 


account  of  the  latter  reason,  gardeners  plant  the  round  seed 
first  in  the  spring  and  do  not  plant  the  wrinkled  kinds  until 
the  soil  is  in  best  condition  and  somewhat  warmed.  The 
wrinkled  kinds  are  better  in  quality  than  the  round  and  smooth 
varieties.     Peas  having  edible  pods  are  not  popular  in  this 

country,  probably  because  of 
the  ease  with  which  string- 
beans  are  grown. 

Culture.  Peas  may  be  grown 
successfully  in  almost  any 
good  soil  ;  they  even  do 
well  on  rather  poor  soil. 
The  smooth  seed  sorts  should 
be  planted  as  soon  as  the 
ground  can  be  worked  in  the 
spring— even  a  hard  freeze  does 
not  hurt  the  pi  ants  as  they  are 
coining  out  of  the  ground,  and 
they  will  stand  considerable 
frost  when  well  up.  The  dis- 
tance between  the  rows  and 
the  seeds  in  the  row  depends 
somewhat  on  the  kinds  grown. 
Some  kinds  branch  out  far 
more  than  others  and,  conse- 
quently, need  more  room  in 
the  row.  They  also  vary  in 
length  of  stem  from  a  few 
inches  to  six  or  seven  feet.  The  tall  kinds  require  the  rows  to  be 
five  or  six  feet  apart,  while  dwarf  varieties  are  generally 
planted  in  rows  thirty  inches  to  three  feet  apart.  The  grow- 
ing of  tall  kinds  is  mostly  confined  to  private  gardens,  where 
it  is  customary  to  use  brush  or  other  material  in  the  rows 
for  a  support.  Formerly,  among  tall  varieties,  were  those  far 
excelling  in  quality  anything  found  among  those  of  a  dwarf 
habit,  but  recent  introductions  of  the  latter  kinds  have 
shown  a  great  improvement  in  quality,  until  now  the  dwarf 
sorts  are  generally  grown,  even  by  the  most  fastidious. 
In  common  practice,  the  seed  is  sown  about  four  inches 
deep,  in  rows    three   feet   apart,  putting   about    ten  seeds  to 


Fig.  9-4.— Nott's  Excelsior  pea. 


178  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

each  foot  of  row.  It  is  best  to  sow  plenty  of  seed  to  se- 
cure a  good  stand.  The  land  should  be  well  cultivated  be- 
tween the  rows.  Unleached  wood  ashes  or  some  oth- 
er fertilizer  rich  in  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  is  most 
beneficial  for  this  crop.  Since  it  belongs  to  the  legumin- 
ous section  of  plants,  it  is  a  nitrogen  producer  and,  conse- 
quently, does  not  need  much  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  Early  peas 
as  generally  grown  are  out  of  the  way  in  time  to  allow  the 
land  to  be  used  for  late  cabbage  or  string  beans.  When  it  is 
desired  to  extend  the  season  of  table  peas,  successive  sowings 
should  be  made  at  intervals  of  two  weeks,  up  to  the  tenth  of 
June.  During  the  summer  the  vinei  are  too  liable  to  mildew 
to  make  late  spring  plantings  successful.  The  pea  is  distinctive- 
ly a  cool  weather  plant  and  on  this  account,  it  will  often  do 
well  when  sown  in  the  latter  part  of  summer  for  use  in  autumn. 

Varieties.  Of  the  many  varieties,  only  a  few  of  the  best  ,  .^ 
referred  to  here.  For  very  early  use,  almost  every  seedsman 
has  a  strain  of  smooth,  round  peas  which  he  sends  out  under 
his  own  peculiar  name.  The  early  sorts  are  generally  derived 
from  the  old  Daniel  O'Rourke,  and  among  them  are  varieties 
known  as  First  and  Best,  Earliest  of  All  and  Improved  Extra 
Early.  As  a  rule,  these  should  be  used  for  first  planting  only, 
to  be  followed  by  plantings  of  the  wrinkled  sorts. 

American  Wonder  is  a  very  dwarf,  early,  pea  of  unsur- 
passed quality  and  very  hardy  for  a  wrinkled  sort.  A  rich 
soil  and  extra  cultivation  are  required  to  get  the  best  results 
from  it.  If  only  one  variety  is  to  be  grown,  this  is  perhaps 
the  best  to  plant. 

Stratagem.  Very  productive  and  justly  popular,  having 
remarkably  large  pods  filled  with  rich,  sweet  peas.  It  does 
better  on  light  than  on  heavy  soils. 

Yorkshire  Hero.    An  excellent  variety . 

Marrowfat.  Among  the  most  popular  of  the  old 
varieties. 

Champion  of  England.  A  tail  growing,  popular  sort, 
of  best  quality,  that  does  best  when  supported  by  brush  or 
wire  netting.     Late. 

Telephone.    Of  excellent  quality.    Pods  and  seeds  large. 


PEPPERS.  179 

One  of  the  most  productive  and,  consequently,  very  popular. 

Bliss's  Abundance.    Half-dwarf,   branching-,   of  excel- 
lent quality  and  very  productive.     Late. 

Nott's  Excelsior.    A  new,  very  productive,  early,  dwarf 
variety  that  is  becoming-  very  popular. 

PEPPERS.     {Capsicum  annuum.) 
Native  of  South  America.— Perennial  but  in  cultivation 
grown  as    an    annual.     There    are   many    varieties    differing 


Flgx?5  -y,arieties  of  Peppers.      1. -Birds  Eye.      2.-Tomato  ShanM      s 
New  Orleans.     4.-Golden  Bell.    5.-Verv  Small  Cat  nP      f  c,    'T*. 
Spanish.    7.-Cluster.    8,-Ruby  ^^JoSE^XSfa  JMretk^ 
chiefly    in  the  shape  of    their   fruit.     All  of  them  have  erect 
branching  stems,  which  become  almost  woody.     The  leaves  are 
spear-shaped;  flowers,  white,  star-shaped,  solitary  in  the  axils 
of  the  leaves:  fruit,  generally  hollow  with  a  somewhat  fleshy 
skin,  at  first  dark  green,  but  when  ripe  turning  red,  yellow  or 
dark  violet.     The  seeds  are  flat  and,  like  the  flesh  of  the  pods 
have  a  very  acrid,  burning  taste,  for  which  the  plant  is  culti- 
vated andused  in  giving  flavor  to  pickles,etc.    Their  germinat- 
ing  power    lasts    about    four  years    after   being   separated 
but   if    left   in  the  pods  they  will  keep  much  longer    without 
injury. 


180 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


Culture.  Peppers  need  practically  the  same  cultivation  as 
the  tomato  or  egg  plant. but  may  be  planted  two  feet  apart,  in 
rows  three  feet  apart. 

Varieties  vary  much  in  the  shape  of  the  pods  and  the 
acridity  of  their  juice.  The  kinds  most  commonly  grown 
are  as  follows: 

Ruby  King.  Fruit  very  large,  bright  red,  smooth,  mild 
flavored  and  prolific.     The  best  for  general  use. 

Long  Red  Cayenne.  Fruit  long  and  slender.  Very 
.pungent. 

POTATO.     (  Sold n um  tuberosum . ) 

Native  of  the  high  mountain  regions  of  South  America. 
I — Grown    as    an    annual,  but   truly  a    perennial   through  its 

tubers.  Its  stems  are 
more  or  less  four  an- 
gled. The  flowers 
vary  in  color  from 
white  to  purplish. 
Many  kinds  do  not 
flower,  and  most  va- 
rieties seldom  if  ev- 
er produce  fruit.  The 
fruit  is  a  roundish  or 
slightly  oval;  berry 
of  a  green  color  or 
tinged  with  violet 
brown  and  averaging 
about  an  inch  in 
diameter.  The  pulp 
is  green  and  very  ac- 
rid. The  seeds  are 
white,  kidney-shaped 
and  flat.  The  seed 
is  never  sown  except 
for  producing  new  varieties.  Seedlings  vary  greatly  and 
often  do  not  obtain  full  size  until  three  years  old.  The  tubers 
are  commonly  referred  to  as  "seed,"  but  they  should  be  re- 
garded as  cuttings  or  sets;  they  are  only  underground  branches 
filled  with  starchy  matter.       They  vary  much  in  size,  shape 


Fig.  96.— Potato  plant  showing  tubers  and  roots. 


POTATO.  181 

and  color  of  skin,  from  white  to  almost  black,  including 
yellow,  red  and  blue.  There  are  hundreds  of  named  varieties, 
but  many  of  them  are  scarcely  distinguishable  from  other 
named  kinds. 

Origin  of  the  Modem  Potato.  Fifty  years  ago  potato  rot  ran 
over  western  Europe  and  the  United  States  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  bring  starvation  in  regions  where  potatoes  were  the  prin- 
cipal article  of  diet;  no  one  knows  where  the  potato  came  from 
that  was  cultivated  previously  to  that  time.  Rev.  Chauncey 
Goodrich,  of  Utica,  N.  Y.,  urged  before  agricultural  societies 
and  the  agricultural  committees  of  the  New  York  legislature 
that  potato  rot  resulted  from  lowered  vitality  of  the  potato  plant, 
due  to  its  being  grown  under  high  cultivation  and  in  climates 
and  soils  not  wholly  congenial  to  a  sub-tropical  plant,  native 
to  a  small  section  only  of  the  earth's  surface;  and  he  claimed 
that  the  way  to  restore  its  vigor  would  be  to  get  varieties 
from  the  part  of  South  America  that  was  the  home  of  the 
potato.  His  theories  were  laughed  at  by  scientific  men,  and 
the  legislative  committee  told  him  he  knew  more  about  theology 
than  about  plant  diseases.  Being  thus  repulsed,  he  attempted 
on  his  own  account  what  he  felt  should  be  undertaken  by  the 
state.  Mr.  Goodrich  commenced  his  experiments  about  1848 
and  at  various  times  for  many  years  imported  potatoes  from 
South  America,  and  from  these  and  their  progeny  he  raised 
many  seedlings.  Among  eight  kinds  received  at  one  import- 
ation (probably,  from  Chili)  was  a  variety  that  he  called  the 
Rough  Purple  Chili.  It  ripened  late  in  the  season  and  was 
generally  hollow,  but  it  had  flesh  of  fine  texture  and  was  free 
from  rot.  From  seed  saved  from  this,  he  raised  the  Garnet 
Chili,  which  was  a  popular  variety  for  many  years  in  New 
York  state.  The  Garnet  Chili  was  parent  of  the  Early  Rose 
and  of  Brazee's  Prolific  and  other  Brazee  seedlings  and,  in- 
deed, of  nearly  all  of  the  desirable  varieties  of  Europe  and 
America  which  have  been  prized  for  half  a  century.  Although 
from  some  of  his  other  importations  he  also  raised  a  few  very 
good  sorts,  yet  the  progeny  of  the  Rough  Purple  Chili  gave 
him  the  most  valuable  kinds.  Among  Goodrich's  other 
seedlings  were  Gleason,  Calico,  Harrison  and  Early  Good- 
rich.    The  latter  was  the  parent  of  the  Chicago  Market. 

Mr.  Goodrich  is  said  to  have  raised  about  sixteen  thousand 


182  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

seedling1  potatoes  from  1848  to  1864.  Out  of  this  large  num- 
ber, he  found  only  about  one  in  a  thousand  that  he  thought 
enough  better  than  the  old  sorts  to  make  it  appear  probable 
that  they  would  be  desirable  for  cultivation.  The  work  that 
he  did  in  this  line  has  been  of  great  value  to  Europe  and 
America 

Soil  and  Manure.  If  given  proper  treatment,  potatoes  can  be 
grown  on  soil  of  almost  any  composition,  provided  it  is  well 
drained,  but  a  light,  rich  soil  is  best.  The  kind  of  soil  to 
some  extent  affects  the  quality  of  the  tubers;  grown  on  sandy 
soil,  they  are  generally  of  better  table  quality  than  on  clay 
soils,  and  when  grown  on  muck  land  the  skin  is  generally 
dark  colored  and  the  flesh  not  mealy.  New  soil  is  most  de- 
sirable, and  in  it  the  tubers  are  generally  healthy;  sod  land 
is  most  excellent  for  this  crop,  but  the  "seed"  should  always 
be  under  the  sod  and  not  on  top  of  it.  If  planted  on  the  sod, 
the  crop  is  very  certain  to  be  seriously  injured  in  dry  seasons. 
It  is  not  generally  advisable  to  manure  the  land  the  season  of 
planting  potatoes  but  preferably  to  apply  it  to  some  previous 
crop,  but  if  manure  is  to  be  applied  it  should  be  well 
rotted.  Raw  stable  manure  is  to  be  avoided,  unless  it  can  be 
applied  a  year  in  advance.  In  applying  manure,  it  is  very 
important  not  to  use  that  from  animals  which  have  been  fed 
on  scabby  potatoes,  as  such  manure  is  liable  to  cause  scabbi- 
ness  in  the  crop. 

The  Sets  (Commonly  Called  "Seed.")  The  tubers  for  planting 
should  be  sound  and  not  sprouted — though  if  sprouted  they 
may  do  well;  sprouting  injures  the  vitality  of  the  potatoes  and 
is  harmful.  We  should  regard  the  potato  much  as  we  do  a 
willow  or  other  plant  that  grows  freely  from  dormant  cuttings 
if  it  has  the  right  soil  conditions,  for  it  is  truly  a  stem.  Given 
good,  sound  seed  potatoes  for  planting  and  good  soil  con- 
ditions, it  matters  little  how  the  sets  are  cut,  provided  that 
every  eye  that  grows  is  on  a  piece  of  potato  large  enough  to 
nourish  the  young  sprout  until  it  has  a  good  root  system  and 
enough  expanded  leaves  to  gather  and  digest  its  own 
food.  In  practice  the  "sets"  should  have  one,  two  or 
three  eyes  according  to  whether  the  tubers  have  few  or  many 
eyes.  Varieties  with  few  eyes,  such  as  the  Rural  New  Yorker 
No.  2,  should  be  cut  to  about  one  eye  to  a  piece,  while  those 


POTATO.  183 

having  many  eyes  should  have  two  or  three  to  each  piece. 
Very  small  seed  pieces  will  not  give  a  full  crop,  and  large 
pieces  are  desirable.  The  biggest  crops  are  most  likely  to 
come  from  the  planting  of  whole  tubers,  but  such- sets  general- 
ly give  a  larger  proportion  of  small  potatoes  than  cuttings 
made  as  recommended.  The  constant  use  of  small  tubers  for 
sets  undoubtedly  causes  varieties  to  "run  out,"  and,  although 
it  is  a  practice  that  may  be  occasionally  followed  without 
serious  results,  it  should  be  avoided  if  practicable. 

Varieties  of  potatoes  seldom  retain  their  pristine  vigor  and 
productiveness  many  years  except  in  very  favorable  locations. 
On  some  land,  even  with  the  best  of  care,  they  are  apt  to  "run 
out,"  and,  as  a  rule,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  occasionally  get 
seed  stock  from  locations  very  favorable  to  the  best  develop- 
ment of  the  potato  or,  at  least,  to  change  for  seed  potatoes 
grown  on  a  different  kind  of  land. 

In  saving  potatoes  for  seed,  it  is  desirable  to  select  them 
in  the  field  from  hills  having  the  largest  number  of  market- 
able tubers,  as  there  is  then  a  tendency  to  fix  this  desirable 
quality.  When  selecting  from  the  bin,  take  smooth,  even, 
medium-sized  potatoes;  the  largest  tubers  will  not  neces- 
sarily give  the  largest  yield.  If  planting  is  done  on  a  small 
scale,  it  is  probably  more  economical  to  cut  them  by  hand. 
Some  of  the  automatic  feed  machines  leave  a  good  many 
pieces  without  eyes,  and  on  this  account  hand  fed  potato 
cutters  are  most  desirable  for  general  use,  although  where 
land  is  very  cheap  the  automatic  feed  machines  may  some- 
times be  the  more  economical. 

Early  Planting.  For  early  use,  potatoes  should  be  planted 
as  soon  as  the  ground  is  nicely  settled.  Light,  sandy  loam  is 
best  for  this  purpose.  The  tops  are  quite  sensitive  to  frost, 
but,  as  they  start  slowly,  they  seldom  get  up  until  all  danger 
from  frost  is  passed.  If  when  pushing  out  of  the  ground  there 
is  danger  from  frost,  the  tops  are  easily  protected  from  it  by 
covering  them  lightly  with  loose  earth  from  between  the  rows, 
through  which  they  soon  push  again.  If  frozen  off  when  sev- 
eral inches  high,  the  crop  is  generally  seriously  lessened,  even 
though  new  sprouts  take  the  place  of  those  injured.  For  early 
crops,  the  ground  should  be  plowed  several  times  to  expose  it 
to  the  air  and  to  warm  it  before  planting.     The  sets  should  no^ 


184  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

"be  covered  quite  so  deep  as  for  the  main  crop,  but  in  other  par- 
ticulars the  crop  should  be  treated  the  same  way,  and  the  quick- 
est maturing-  kinds  only  should  be  planted.  If  the  tubers  for 
early  sets  are  spread  out  in  a  light,  warm  room  for  three  or 
four  weeks  before  planting-,  healthy  green  sprouts  will  start 
from  the  eyes,  and,  if  in  cutting-  these  sprouts  are  carefully 
handled  so  as  not  to  break  them  off,  the  crop  will  be  muck 
earlier  than  if  the  sets  were  not  thus  started;  they  may  also  be 
started  in  a  hotbed  before  or  after  being-  cut  and  afterwards 
transplanted  to  the  open  ground:  but  these  methods  are  seldom 
practiced  except  in  a  very  small  way,  although  in  some  sec- 
tions they  might  be  made  profitable. 

Main  Crop.  For  the  main  crop  of  potatoes,  it  is  desirable 
to  have  the  seed  in  the  ground  pretty  early.  It  is  customary 
in  this  section  to  plant  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  first  of 
June.  When  planted  later,  they  are  very  liable  to  suffer  ser- 
iously from  drought,  and  earlier  planting  is  more  desirable.. 
The  results  of  many  experiments  show  that  the  sets  should  be 
planted  about  four  inches  deep,  at  sixteen  inch  intervals,  in 
rows  three  feet  apart.  This  work  may  be  done  by  furrowing 
out  with  the  plow  or  horse  hoe,  planting  by  hand  and  cover- 
ing the  sets  with  the  plow,  though  when  planted  on  a  large 
scale  the  work  is  generally  done  by  a  potato  planter.  There 
are  several  excellent  potato  planters  on  the  market.  Some 
good  growers  prefer  to  plant  the  sets  in  check  rows  three  feet 
apart  each  way  when  the  land  is  weedy,  but  so  much  space  be- 
tween the  plants  is  not  generally  desirable,  since  under  ordi- 
nary circumstances  thorough  harrowing  when  the  crop  is  young 
will  destroy  all  weeds.  If  the  sets  are  planted  four  inches 
deep,  very  little  hilling  up  is  required;  if  planted  much  deeper, 
the  digging  is  quite  difficult;  if  planted  nearer  the  surface,  the 
tubers  are  liable  to  push  out  of  the  ground  and  require  to  be 
hilled  up,  which  is  not  desirable.  The  land  should  be  har- 
rowed or  thoroughly  cultivated  with  a  Breed's  Weeder  as  soon 
as  the  smallest  weeds  can  be  seen  or  a  crust  forms  on  the  land 
after  planting.  It  is  entirely  practicable  to  harrow  potatoes 
at  least  three  times,  the  first  time  just  before  the  plants  show? 
the  second  when  they  are  just  above  ground  and  the  third  when 
the  plants  are  three  or  four  inches  high.  Little  if  any  harm 
will  be  done  the  plants  by  this  work,  provided  a  slanting  tooth 


POTATO.  185 

harrow  is  used.  Such  treatment  will  do  more  to  remove  weeds 
than  a  good  hand  hoeing-,  and  the  expense  of  the  operation  is 
almost  nothing.  If  the  work  is  properly  done,  there  is  no 
need  of  hand  work.  Subsequent  cultivation  should  consist  in 
keeping  the  soil  loose  between  the  rows,  and  a  little  earth  should 
be  thrown  against  the  plants.  For  this  purpose  a  good  horse 
hoe  will  do  excellent  work,  but  a  still  better  implement  is  a 
two  horse  cultivator  that  works  both  sides  of  the  row  at  one- 
operation.  It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  hill  up  potatoes,  and  it 
should  not  be  done  unless  they  are  pushing  out  of  the  ground, 
when  they  will  turn  green  if  not  covered  up.  Cultivation  should 
be  thorough  when  the  plants  are  young  but  is  not  desirable 
after  the  tops  have  made  most  of  their  growth. 

Digging  Potatoes.  Early  potatoes  are  generally  dug  as  soon 
as  they  are  big  enough  for  cooking  if  there  is  a  market  for 
them:  for  winter  use,  it  is  very  desirable  to  have  the  tubers 
well  ripened,  as  if  not  ripe  the  skin  will  peel  off  when  handled, 
and  they  do  not  look  well.  When  potatoes  are  high  in  price, 
it  may  pay  to  dig  them  by  hand,  for  which  purpose  four-tined 
garden  forks  are  desirable:  the  best  potato  diggers,  however, 
do  as  good  work  as  can  be  done  by  hand,  and  are  generally 
used  by  those  who  raise  this  crop  on  a  large  scale.  When 
potatoes  are  cheap,  they  should  be  dug  with  a  potato  digger 
or  plowed  out:  though  when  plowed  out  some  tubers  will  get 
covered  up,  most  of  these  may  be  brought  to  the  surface 
by  the  use  of  a  straight  tooth  harrow.  If  the  tubers  are  keep- 
ing well  in  the  ground,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  delay  the  digging 
until  the  cool  weather  of  autumn,  when  they  may  be  carried 
directly  from  the  field  to  the  cellar.  If  they  are  rotting  in  the 
ground  or  are  "•scabby,"  they  should  be  dug  at  once,  and  if 
the  cellar  is  cool  they  may  be  put  at  once  into  it,  but,  other- 
wise, it  is  a  good  plan  to  pit  them  in  the  field. 

Pitting  in  mild  weather  is  done  by  putting  the  tubers  into 
heaps  and  covering  them  with  straw  or  hay  and  a  few  inches 
of  loam.  The  straw  should  be  allowed  to  stick  out  along  the 
top  of  the  heap  as  a  ventilator,  so  as  to  allow  the  moisture  to 
pass  off.  In  the  colder  weather  of  late  autumn,  the  covering, 
of  course,  should  be  heavier,  and  when  the  potatoes  have 
ceased  to  sweat  there  is  no  need  of  a  ventilator.  In  milder 
sections,  potatoes  are  stored  through  the  winter  in  such  pits, 


186 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


but  it  is  impracticable  here.  However,  even  in  Minnesota, 
potatoes  may  be  safely  kept  over  winter  in  trenches  or  pits 
made  below  the  ground,  although  a  good  cellar  is  a  far  more 
desirable  place.  For  this  purpose,  the  pit  should  not  be 
large:  a  good  size  is  four  feet  wide  and  deep  and  not  more 
than  six  feet  long.  It  should  be  filled  heaping  full  with  the 
potatoes  and  covered  with  six  inches  of  straw  and  eighteen  of 
soil.  Ventilation  is  given  until  cold  weather  sets  in  and  the 
potatoes  are  cooled  off.  The  whole  pit  should  then  be  covered 
with  enough  litter  or  manure  (  generally  about  two  feet )  to 
keep  outthe  frost.  Such  pits  can  only  be  opened  in  mild  weather. 
If  this  work  is  well  done,  the  potatoes  will  be  in  fine  condition 


Fig.  97.— Potatoes  pitted  for  winter. 
in  the  spring,  but  beginners  are  very  apt  to  fail  of  success  in 
this  method  of  storing,  and  they  should  attempt  it  only  on  a 
small  scale.  It  is  better  to  make  several  pits  close  together 
rather  than  one  large  one,  since  in  a  large  one  the  potatoes 
are  likely  to  sweat.  Potatoes  should  always  be  kept  in  a  cool, 
dark  place.  The  sunlight  should  not  be  allowed  to  shine  on 
them  for  any  length  of  time,  since  it  causes  them  to  turn  green 
and  develops  a  poisonous  substance  in  them.  If  kept  in  a 
cellar,  the  bins  are  improved  by  having  slatted  floors  and 
sides,  so  that  there  may  be  some  circulation  of  air  through 
them  to  prevent  heating  at  the  bottom.  The  bins  should  not 
be  large  nor  more  than  five  feet  deep.  There  is  a  great  differ- 
ence in  the  keeping  qualities  of  varieties;  as  a  rule,  the  early 


POTATO. 


187 


kinds  are  hard  to  keep  from  sprouting,  and  the  late  kinds  keep 
the  best. 

Starch.  When  potatoes  are  low  in  price,  they  can  be  profit- 
ably worked  into  starchr  but  for  this  purpose  starch  factories 
must  be  nearby.  Such  factories  are  not  expensive  and  should 
be  more  common  in  this  section. 

The  demand  for  potatoes  seems  destined  to  increase  very 
much.  There  is  a  growing-  demand  each  year  from  the  Eastern 
and  Southern  states  for  Northwestern  grown  potatoes.  Under 
ordinary  cultivation  in  this   section,  they  seldom  yield  more 


Fig.  98.— Six  good  varieties  of  early  potatoes.  1.— Ohio  Jr.  2.— Early 
Ohio.  3.— Burpee's  Extra  Early,  i.— Early  Harvest.  5.— Freeman.  6.— 
Good  News. 

than  150  bushels  per  acre  of  marketable  tubers,  and  the  aver- 
age even  in  favorable  years  is  probably  not  over  120  bushels 
per  acre.  There  are,  however,  recorded  yields  here  of  800 
bushels    per    acre,  and  they  often   yield    over   400  bushels. 

Varieties.  There  is  a  very  great  difference  in  varieties,  but 
many  kinds  closely  resemble  one  another.  There  is  quite  a 
difference  in  the  adaptability  of  varieties  to  soils.  The  large 
coarser  kinds  are  good  for  starch  but  not  desirable  for  table 
use.  Most  markets  prefer  a  white  or  pink  potato, rather  long, 
oval  in  form  and  smooth,  but  the  fashions  change  and  vary 
considerably.  Some  of  the  varieties  at  present  regarded  with 
much  favor  are  the  following: 


188 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


Early  Ohio.  The  most  popular  early  kind  and  a  good 
sort  for  the  general  crop,  productive  and  very  early. 

Burbank,  or  Burbank's  Seedling,  is,  an  excellent  late 
kind  and  a  good  keeper,  but  seems  to  be  running  out  in  some 
sections.  It  cooks  a  little  soggy  until  winter,  when  it  is  of  ex- 
cellent table  quality.     Form  long  and  round. 

Rural  New  Yorker  No.  '2.  Form  flat,  roundish  oblong, 
very  productive.  Quality  a  little  inferior  and  sometimes  in- 
clined to  be  hollow.  Very  popular  in  some  sections.  It  is-' 
undoubtedly  much  influenced  by  the  soil  on  which  it  grows. 


Fig.  99.— Six  good  varieties  of  late  potatoes.  1.— Rural  New  Yorker 
No.  2.  2.— American  Wonder.  3.— Irish  Cobbler.  4.— World's  Fair.  5.— 
Woodbury  White.    '6.— Carman  No.  l. 

Early  Rose,  is  the  progenitor  of  most  of  our  good  kinds. 
It  was  introduced  into  cultivation  about  1868  and  is  still  pro- 
ductive in  the  best  potato  districts  of  this  section  but  is  not 
now  adapted  to  general  use. 

Other  varieties  of  special  merit  of  theearly  kinds  are  Early 
Acme  and  Vaughan:  of  medium  and  late  kinds  are  American 
Wonder,  White  Prolific,  Maggie  Murphy  and  Delaware. 

Note  on  Propagation.  New  varieties  of  potatoes  are  gen- 
erally high  in  price,  and  it  is  desirable  to  increase 
them  rapidly.  This  may  be  done  as  follows:  Place 
the  tubers  in  rich  soil  in  a  box  or  in  pots,  without  cut- 
ting them,  in  a  warm,  light  room,  hotbed  or  greenhouse.  As 
soon  as  the  sprouts  are  nicely  furnished  with  roots,  break 
them  off  at  the  surface  of  the  potato  below  the  roots  and  plant 


POTATO.  189 

in  pots.  New  sprouts  will  start  from  the  eyes  again,  and  the 
process  may  be  repeated  until  the  tuber  is  exhausted.  By  an- 
other way,  the  tubers  are  cut  up  and  planted  in  good  rich 
loam.  As  soon  as  the  shoots  are  six  inches  or  more  high, 
about  three  inches  is  cut  off  the  top  of  each.  These  pieces  are 
]3ut  in  moist  sand,  watered  frequently  and  allowed  all  the  sun- 
light they  will  stand  without  wilting  and  treated  the  same  as 
it  is  common  to  treat  cuttings  of  house  plants.  In  three  or 
four  weeks,  they  will  be  rooted  and  maybe  potted  in  rich  soil. 
These  shoots  may  again  be  cut  when  nicely  started,. and  so  on. 
The  plants  thus  grown  are  planted  out  when  the  weather  is 
settled  in  the  spring.  For  best  success  with  these  methods  of 
propagation,  the  work  should  begin  in  the  late  winter  or  very 
early  spring. 

Insects.  There  are  but  few  insects  that  do  serious  injury 
to  the  potato  in  this  section,  and  the  most  important  of  these 
is  the  Colorado  potato  beetle,  or  ''potato-bug, "  but  it  may 
also  be  injured  by  blister  beetles,  wire  worms  and  white  grubs. 
(For  remedies  for  these  pests,  see  chapter  on  insects.) 

Diseases.  There  are  several  diseases  that  sometimes  injure 
the  potato.  The  most  common  of  these  are  known  as  the  scab 
and  the  blight.  Scab  is  a  term  used  to  refer  to  the  rough 
patches  with  which  potatoes  are  frequently  covered.  Potatoes 
so  infected  are  lessened  in  yield,  and  on  account  of  being  un- 
sightly and  rough  do  not  sell  readily.  The  term  blight  refers 
to  a  disease  that  kills  the  tops. 

Scab  of  Potatoes  is  caused  by  a  fungous  plant  working  in 
the  surface  of  the  potato.  The  germs  of  it  are  very  abundant 
and  live  for  many  years  in  the  soil  and  also  over  winter  on 
the  potatoes.  If  these  germs  are  fed  to  stock,  they  undoubted- 
ly grow  in  the  manure,  and  the  use  of  such  manure  may  often 
be  the  cause  of  infection.  Also,  they  may  be  spread  in  the 
soil  by  natural  drainage,  and  land  receiving  the  drainage 
from  infested  fields  may  become  infested  with  the  disease  with- 
out ever  having  potatoes  on  them.  Scabby  seed  potatoes 
when  planted  on  new  or  old  potato  land  will  generally  pro- 
duce a  scabby  crop,  but  the  amount  of  the  disease  will  gener- 
ally be  much  more  on  the  old  land  than  on  the  new. 

Perfectly  clean  seed  potatoes  planted  on  land  which  is  free 
from  the  scab  fungus  will  always  and  in  any  season  produce 


190  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

a  crop  of  smooth,  clean  potatoes,  no  matter  what  may  be  the 
character  of  the  soil;  but  apparently  clean  seed  potatoes  may 
have  the  germs  of  the  scab  fungus  on  their  surface.  This  is 
often  the  case  where  they  have  been  sorted  out  from  a  lot 
that  is  somewhat  infected  with  scab.  In  this  latter  case  the 
tubers  should,  at  least,  be  thoroughly  washed  in  running 
water  to  remove  any  germs  that  may  be  present  or,  what  is 
better  yet, be  treated  with  corrosive  sublimate  (mercuric  bichlor- 
ide )  as  recommended  below. 

Land  infected  by  the  germs  of  potato  scab  will  produce  a 


Treated.    Fig.  100.— Potato  Scab.  Not  treated. 

Both  plates  grown  from  the  same  lot  of  scabby  seed. 

more  or  less  scabby  crop,  no  matter  how  clean  and  smooth  the 

seed  used. 

Scabby  potatoes  should  be  dug  as  soon  as  mature,  since 
the  scab  fungus  continues  to  grow  on  the  potatoes  as  long  as 
they  are  in  the  ground. 

Scabby  potatoes  may  safely  be  used  for  seed,  providing 
they  are  first  treated  with  corrosive  sublimate  as  follows: 
Procure  from  a  druggist  two  ounces  of  powdered  corrosive 
sublimate  (mercuric  bichloride);  put  this  into  two  gallons  of  hot 
water  in  a  wooden  or  earthenware  vessel  and  allow  it  to  stand 
until  dissolved.  Place  thirteen  gallons  of  water  in  a  clean 
barrel,  pour  in  the  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  and  allow 
it  to  stand  two  or  three  hours,  with  frequent  stirrings  in  order 
to  have  the  solution  uniform.     Select  potatoes  as   nearly  free 


POTATO.  191 

from  scab  as  can  be  obtained;  put  the  seed  potatoes  into 
bags, either  before  or  after  cutting-  them  and  then  dip  them  in- 
to the  corrosive  sublimate  solution  and  allow  them  to 
stay  in  it  for  an  hour  and  a  half.  If  seed  potatoes  are  treated 
in  this  way  and  then  planted  on  land  free  from  scab,  the  re. 
sultant  crop  will  seldom  be  seriously  injured,  by  scab.  The 
expense  of  this  treatment  including-  labor  should  not  exceed 
one  dollar  per  acre. 

Blight  of  potatoes  is  a  disease  which  attacks  the  leaves  and. 
stems  of  potatoes,  and  sometimes  even  the  tubers  are  affected. 
It  is  most  prevalent  during  moist,  warm  weather,  when  some- 
times the  fungus  may  be  seen  as  a  delicate  white  mildew  on  the 
stems  and  leaves  of  the  potato  vines.  In  seasons  favorable  to 
it,  the  tops  of  an  entire  field  may  be  killed  in  a  few  days  from 
the  time  the  disease  was  first  noticed:  at  other  times,  the  tops 
die  so  gradually  it  is  mistaken  for  a  natural  dying  of  the 
vines.  Rotting  of  the  tubers  often  follows  the  dying  of  the  tops. 
It  has  been  quite  clearly  shown  that  this  disease  may  be  kept 
in  check,  or  the  trouble  entirely  prevented,  by  spraying  the 
tops  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  occasionally.  It  is,  however, 
somewhat  doubtful  about  the  benefits  being  sufficiently  certain 
in  this  section  to  justify  the  expense;  but  should  this  disease  be- 
come more  abundant  it  may  prove  to  be  a  paying  operation. 
The  cost  of  treating  one  acre  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  is 
about  $5.00.  There  is  little  use  of  applying  this  material 
after  the  damage  from  the  disease  is  apparent,  as  it  must  be 
used  as  a  preventive. 

Bordeaux  Mixture  is  made  as  follows:  Dissolve  five  pounds 
of  blue  vitriol  ( sulphate  of  copper )  in  a  wooden  or  earthen- 
ware vessel.  As  this  substance  dissolves  very  slowly  in  cold 
water  and  solutions  of  it  are  very  heavy,  it  is  well  to  suspend 
it  near  the  top  of  the  water.  (It  dissolves  more  quickly 
in  hot  water.)  In  another  vessel,  slake  five  pounds  of  good 
fresh  quicklime  in  ten  gallons  of  water.  When  the  mixture  is 
wanted,  pour  the  blue  vitriol  into  a  barrel  containing-  thirty- 
five  gallons  of  water  and  then  add  the  lime.  When  thoroughly 
stirred,  the  color  of  the  mixture  should  be  a  clear  sky  blue. 
After  being  mixed  for  a  day  or  so  the  mixture  loses  much  of  its 
strength,  so  it  is  well  to  use  a  supply  that  has  been  mixed 
only    a  short   time  previously.      There   are   many    formulas 


192  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

used,  which  vary  as  to  the  amount  of    lime  and  water,  but   the 
above  gives  good  satisfaction  when  used  properly. 

Internal  brown  rot  is  the  name  given  to  a  disease  which  has 
recently  appealed  in  a  few  potato  growing  sections  in  this 
country.  It  is  first  noticed  by  the  darkening  of  the  starchy 
portion  of  the  tubers,  which  may  become  very  much  discolored 

without  any  manifestation  of 
its  presence  on  the  outside: 
later  on  the  potato  rots.  The 
life  history  of  this  disease  is 
not  known,  nor  are  any  reme- 
dies known  for  it.  Ordinary 
prudence,  however,  would  in- 
dicate that  seed    potatoes  in 


Fig.  lui.— internal  brown  rot  of  the 
potato. 


the  least  affected  with  this  trouble  should  not  be  planted. 
SWEET  POTATO.     (Ipomwa  batatas.) 
Native  of  South  America. — Perennial  but  cultivated  as  an 
annual. — It    is    a   near   relative    of   the   morning   glory    and 
scarcely    resembles  the 
common  potato  in    any 
particular.  It  probably 
cannot      be     profitably 
raised    in   the    extreme 
Northern  states,  but  may 
be  grown    in    a     small 
way  in  warm,  sandy  soil 
as  far  north  as  Minne- 
sota and     will  produce 
even  there  very  large  tu- 
bers.     The  plant  never 
flowers     at     the     North 
and  is  never  cultivated 
from  seed. 

.  Culture.  The  sweet  po- 
tato is  raised  from 
sprouts,  which  are  pro- 
duced abundantly  if  the 
tubers  are  planted  in  a 
hotbed  in  the  early  spring 
the  tubers  and  are  planted  out  after  the  soil  has  become  warm. 


Fig.  102.— Sweet  potatoes  and  piece  of  vine. 
The  sprouts  are  carefully  pulled  from 


PUMPKINS. 


193 


They  should  be  set  two  feet  apart,  in  rows  four  feet  apart. 
They  need  considerable  care  until  started,  after  which  they  re- 
quire good  cultivation  only  and  are  easily  grown.  The  vines 
spread  on  the  ground  and  have  a  tendency  to  root  at  the 
joints,  which  should  be  discouraged  by  moving  them  at  every 
hoeing.  They  are  very  susceptible  to  cold  weather  and  should 
be  pulled  as  soon  as  the  tops  are  frosted.  There  are  many 
cultivated  varieties  in  the  south.  For  the  northern  states, 
Early  Carolina  is  perhaps  the  best. 


PUMPKIN.     {Cucurbita  Pepo. ) 

Native  of  warm  climates. — Annual. — Under  the  name  of 
pumpkin  are  grouped  a  number  of  gourds,  greatly  varying  in 
shape,  color,  size  and  quality.  Some  of  them  are  very  good 
for  cooking  purposes,  but  they  are  not  generally  esteemed  for 

table  use  by  those  who  have 
become  accustomed  to  the 
better  kinds  of  squashes: 
some  of  them  are  great 
yielders  and  are  used  for 
feeding  cattle.  They  may 
be  grown  as  recommended 
for  squash  or.  as  is  most 
Fig.  103.-  Cheese  pumpkin.  commonly  practiced,  grown 

amongst  the  corn,  where  the  seed  is  planted  as  soon  as  warm 
weather  is  assured.  The  seed  varies  much  in  size.  For  re- 
marks on  its  flowers  and  pollination  see  squash  with  which 
they  are  nearly  identical. 

The  Variety  most  generally  grown  is  known  as  Connecti- 
cut Field,  which  is  of  large  size  and  used  mainly  for  feeding 
stock.  Sugar  and  Cheese  pumpkins  are  varieties  much  grown 
for  cooking. 

PvADISHES.     ( Baphanus  sativus. ) 

Probably  a  native  of  Asia. — Annual  or,  in  the  case  of  the 
winter  radish,  biennial. — The  flower  stalks  are  branched, 
about  three  feet  high  and  have  white  or  lilac-colored  flowers, 
but  never  yellow.  The  seed  is  roundish  or  oval  but  somewhat 
flattened,  much  larger  than  cabbage  or  turnip  seed,  and  much 
more  variable  in  size.      Some  recent  experiments  show  that 


194 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


the  large  radish  seeds  germinate  more  quickly  and  with  more 
certainty  and  produce  marketable  roots  sooner  and  more  uni- 
formly than  small  seed. 

Culture.  The  radish  is  a  vegetable  of  very  easy  culture. 
The  roots  of  some  kinds  reach  edible  size  in  three  weeks  when 

grown  under  the 
best  conditions 
and  are  a  favorite 
in  the  early  spring. 
It  is  a  common 
practice  to  sow  the 
seed  of  early  kinds 
in  hotbedsbetween. 
rows  of  lettuce  and 
outdoors  between, 
or  in  the  rows  of 
beets,  carrots,  par- 
snips, etc.  They 
will  grow  in  almost 
any  soil,  but  new 
land  is  best.  The 
seed  may  be  sown  as 
soon  as  the  ground 
can  be  worked  in 
the  spring  and  suc- 
Fig.  KM.-White  Strasburg  radishes.  Cessive     sowings 

should  then  be  made  every  two  weeks. 

Winter  radishes  are  grown  and  stored  in  the  same  manner 
and  fully  as  easily,  as  turnips.  The  seed  is  sown  in  June  or 
July,  and  the  roots  gathered  in  autumn  and  stored  in  the 
cellar  or  pitted  outdoors.  They  keep  very  well.  Winter 
radishes  closely  resemble  the  early  kinds  in  quality,  but  are 
firmer  in  texture.  The  cabbage  flea  beetle  affects  the  young 
radish  plants  in  the  late  spring  and  summer.  (  See  chapter  on 
insects  for  remedies.)  The  roots  are  sometimes  infested  with 
maggots,  but  these  are  seldom  troublesome  except  where  fresh 
manure  is  used  or  in  land  where  radishes  have  been  grown  for 
several  years.  It  is  best  not  to  manure  the  land  for  radishes 
but  use  rich  soil  that  has  been  put  in  good  order  by  some 
other  crop. 


RHUBARB.  195 

Varieties.     There  are  many  kinds,  differing  from  each  other 
color  form,    size,    time  of  maturity  and  taste.      They  are 

generally  divided    into 
early,  or  forcing  varie- 
$5jJj|ifMj)  ties?    summer    and   au- 

tumn varieties  and 
winter  kinds.  A  few  of 
each  areherementioned. 
French  Breakfast. 
One  of  the  best  very  ear- 
ly radishes  for  the  mar- 
ket. It  remains  in  good 
condition  for  only  a 
short  time  after  becom- 
ing edible;  hence, is  not 
so  desirable  for  the 
Fig.  105.— French  breakfast  radishes.  home  garden. 

Early  White  Tipped  Scarlet  Turnip  Shaped.— A 
handsome,  round,  early,  popular  radish,  maturing  very 
quickly. 

Early  Deep  Scarlet.  Very  early,  round  and  of  deep 
scarlet  color. 

Long  Scarlet  Short  Top.  A  well  known  desirable 
early  kind  having  long  scarlet  roots. 

White  Strasburg.  One  of  the  finest  half  long  kinds  for 
summer  use.     Grows  to  good  size:  white  and  tender. 

Rose.     The  most  popular  of  the  winter  sorts.     Skin  pink. 

Black  Spanish.  Skin  very  black,  flesh  white,  firm,  ten- 
der but  very  pungent.     A  good  winter  sort. 


RHUBARB  OR  PIE  PLANT.     [Bheum  Bhaponticum.) 

The  cultivated  varieties  of  rhubarb  are  generally  supposed 
to  have  come  from  Mongolia,  though  it  is  quite  possible  that 
some  varieties  may  have  sprung  from  a  North  American 
species.  The  plant  is  an  herbaceous  perennial  whose  leaf 
stalks  are  used  for  sauce,  pies,  etc.  It  sends  up  a  flower 
stalk  often  four  feet  high,  and  produces  a  large  amount  of 
seed  each  year.  It  is  perfectly  hardy  in  gardens,  even  in  very 
severe  situations    and  when  once  planted  continues  to  yield  a 


196 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

The  seeds  are  large    and   tri- 


bundant  crops  for  many  year 
angular. 

Culture.  Rhubarb  is  readily  increased  from  the  seed, 
which    germinates    quickly.       Seedlings     vary    considerably 

but  not  enough  to  prevent 
this  method  of  propaga- 
tion from  being  the  one 
most  commonly  practiced. 
They  attain  good  trans- 
planting size  in  one  year. 
It  is  customary  to  sow  the 
seed  in  rows  three  feet 
apart,  early  in  the  spring, 
and  set  out  the  plants  when 
one  year  old  where  they 
are  to  grow:  the  plants 
may  also  be  thinned  out 
and  a  fewT  allowed  to  re- 
main where  the  seeds  are 
sown.  When  it  is  desired  to 
propagate  the  specially 
valuable  qualities  of  individual  plants,  it  is  done  by  dividing 
the  roots,  using  care  to  take  at  least  one  good  bud  with  each 
piece  of  root.  This  is  the  only  sure  way  of  getting  the  best 
plants. 

It  is  preferable  to  set  the  plants  out  in  the  fall  where  they 
are  to  grow,  but  spring  planting  is  often  followed.  They 
should  be  set  in  the  richest  of  land  four  feet  apart  each  way. 
The  stalks  should  not  be  pulled  until  the  spring  of  the  second 
year  and  then  only  to  a  small  extent:  the  third  year  they 
should  give  a  good  crop.  The  only  culture  needed  is  to  keep 
the  ground  free  from  weeds  and  loose,  and  to  use  plenty  of 
manure.  In  gathering  rhubarb,  the  stalks  should  be  removed 
from  the  crown  by  a  jerk  downward  and  sideways,  and  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  be  so  rough  about  it  as  to  pull  the  buds 
from  the  crown  at  the  same  time.  There  is  little  danger  of 
pulling  more  leaves  than  the  plant  can  stand  without  injury, 
but  in  the  case  of  a  young  plantation  it  would  not  be  well  to 
remove  more  than  one-half  of  the  leaves  at  any  one  time.  The 
stalks  are  most  in  demand  early  in  the  spring,   but  there  is 


Fig.  106.— Rhubarb  plant  in  flower. 


RHUBARB.  1 97 

more  or  less  call  for  them  all  summer.  The  seed  stalks  should 
be  cut  off  as  soon  as  they  appear,  so  as  to  throw  their  strength 
into  the  leaves  and  to  prevent  the  formation  of  seed,  if  the 
largest  amount  of  stalks  is  needed. 

Forcing  Rhubarb.  For  winter  and  spring  use  rhubarb  is 
often  forced  in  greenhouses  and  cold  frames.  The  roots  of 
any  age  are  taken  up  in  autumn,  crowded  together  under  the 
benches  in  greenhouses  or  placed  in  boxes  or  barrels  with  a 
little  soil  between  them,  and  put  in  any  convenient  place  in 
the  greenhouse  or  a  warm  light  room  or  cellar  where  they 
start  into  growth  by  February.  Still  another  way  of  forcing- 
rhubarb    in  the  spring  is   by  putting  a  cold   frame  over  the 


Fig.  107.— Pieces  of  rhubarb  roots  cut  off  for  planting  out. 
plants  where  they  grow  in  the  open  ground.  This  method  may 
be  improved  by  heavily  mulching  the  plants  so  as  to  keep  out 
the  frost  in  winter.  The  roots  are  sometimes  lifted  in  autumn, 
planted  close  together  in  a  deep  cold  frame  and  covered  with 
leaves  to  keep  out  frost.  In  March  the  leaves  are  removed, 
and  the  sashes  put  on.  This  method  has  the  advantage  of 
using  the  sashes  to  the  best  advantage,  but  roots  that  are  dug 
and  then  forced  are  worthless  for  further  planting.  In  order 
to  increase  the  length  of  the  stalks,  it  is  a  common  practice 
where  but  a  small  amount  is  grown  to  put  headless  barrels 
over  each  plant  in  the  spring  when  the  leaves  are  starting  into 
growth,    and   in  striving  to    reach   the   liofht  the  leaf    stalks 


198  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

naturally  grow  long  and  tender.  An  old  sash  laid  over  the 
barrel  is  an  improvement  on  this  method. 

Varieties.  There  are  several  varieties  but  the  following 
kinds  are  the  most  highly  esteemed: 

Myatt's  Linneus.  An  early  sort  having  deep  green 
stalks  and  attaining  to  a  large  size. 

Myatt's  Victoria.  A  much  later  kind  than  the  preced- 
ing.    Stalks  red,  very  thick  and  large. 

SALSIFY,  or    VEGETABLE    OYSTER.      {Tragopogon  por- 
rifolius. ) 

Native  of  Europe.— Biennial.— A  plant  with  long  fleshy 
tap-root  and  grass-like  leaves. 
The  flower  stalks  grow  three 
feet  high:  the  seed  is  long, 
ridged,  generally  curved  and 
pointed  at  both  ends.  It  is  rath- 
er difficult  to  plant  with  a  seed 
sower  because  of  its  peculiar 
form,  but  when  thoroughly 
cleaned  it  is  often  so  planted. 

Culture.  The  cultural  direc- 
tions given  for  the  parsnip  ap- 
ply to  this  plant.  It  is  very  ea- 
sily grown  and  hardy,  and 
generally  comes  through  the 
winter  in  tha  extreme  northern 
states  without  injury:  it  is  safer, 
however,  to  dig  the  roots  in 
autumn  and  put  in  pits  until 
spring  or  for  use  during  winter. 
The  root  is  highly  esteemed  and 
has  the  flavor  of  oysters:  it 
is  used  for  soups  but  may  be 
cooked  in  the  same  manner  as 
parsnips. 

The  best  variety  is  the  Mam- 
moth   Sandwich    Island,    which 
Fig.  108.-Sandwich  Island  salsify,  is  far  superior  to  any  other. 


SQUASH.  199 

SQUASH.     ( Cucurbita. ) 

The  term  squash  does  not  signify  any  botanical  division, 
but  is  an  American  name  that  is  applied  to  a  large  number  of 
varieties  of  gourds  which  in  common  parlance  have  come  to 
be  classified  separately.  The  term  often  includes  what  are 
sometimes  called  pumpkins. 

Pollenizing  the  flowers.  The  flowers  resemble  those  of  the  cu- 
cumber and  melon,  being  separate  on  the  same  vine.  The 
pistillate    flower    is    produced    at    the   end    of    the    miniature 


Fig.  109.— Flowers  of  the  squash.    To  the  left  two  staminate  (male) flowers: 
to  the  right  two  pistillate  (female)  flowers. 

squash:  the  staminate  flower  is  often  called  the  "false  blos- 
som. "  and  its  office  is  to  produce  pollen  only.  They  are 
naturally  pollenized  by  insects. 

The  crop  is  made  more  certain  by  having  bees  near  by  to 
pollenize  the  flowers.  In  some  places,  the  absence  of  many  in- 
sects is  the  reason  why  cucumbers, melons  and  squashes, which 


200  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

are  similar  in  the  construction  of  their  flowers,  fail  to  produce 
much  fruit,  though  the  vines  may  grow  freely.  This  is  a  com- 
mon complaint  in  some  new  prairie  sections,  as  there  is  often 
quite  an  absence  of  insects  in  such  cases.  Where  the  small 
cucumbers,  squashes  or  melons  fall  off  and  fail  to  mature, this 
matter  of  pollenization  should  be  closely  looked  into,  and  if 
insects  are  not  present  the  work  can  be  quickly  and  easily 
done  by  hand.  For  this  purpose  a  rather  large  camel's  hair 
brush  is  used  which  can  be  filled  at  one  time  with  enough  pol- 
len from  a  few  male  flowers  to  pollenize  twenty  or  more  female 
flowers. 

The  seed  is  oval  and  flat  but  varies  greatly  in  size.  There 
is  a  common  belief  among  gardeners  that  vines  from  old  seed 
do  not  grow  so  strong  as  those  from  new  seed  and  produce 
more  fruit.     This  seems  to  be  borne  out  by  some  experiments. 

Cultivation.  The  cultivation  of  the  squash  and  the  pumpkin 
'is  much  the  same  as  for  cucumbers.  About  six  sseds  should 
be  put  in  each  hill.  These  should  be  eight  feet  apart  each  way 
for  the  longer  growing  kinds  and  five  feet  apart  for  the  bush 
sorts.  The  plants  should  be  thinned  out  after  they  are  estab- 
lished, so  as  to  allow  two  plants  to  each  hill.  They  are  af- 
fected by  the  same  insect  pests  as  the  cucumber  and  the  same 
remedies  are  in  order.  In  .addition,  however,  to  these,  some 
kinds  are  affected  in  the  eastern  states  by  a  borer  which 
works  in  the  stem  and  by  the  squash  bug.  (  See  chapter  on 
insects.  ) 

The  early  varieties  of  the  squash  are  sometimes  started 
in  hotbeds  or  cold  frames  to  advance  them  and  thus  avoid 
serious  injury  from  the  striped  beetle. 

Harvesting.  Summer  squash  are  not  grown  for  storing  and 
are  not  desirable  except  before  the  skin  hardens,  when  they 
are  used  entire.  Winter  squash  are  excellent  for  use  in  a 
green  state  but  are  not  gathered  for  storing  until  the  skin  is 
hard.  They  should  always  be  gathered  upon  the  approach  of 
frosty  weather,  as  a  very  little  frost  injures  their  keeping- 
qualities,  although  the  injury  may  not  be  apparent  when 
gathered.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  place  them  in  piles  in  the 
field,  leaving  them  exposed  to  the  sun  during  the  day  and  cov- 
ering them  with  the  vines  or  other  material  every  frosty  night 
until  they  are  thoroughly   dried    and    the  skins   have  become 


SQUASH.  201 

hard  and  flinty.  In  gathering,  cut  the  stem  off  not  over  an 
inch  from  the  squash,  for  if  the  stem  is  left  on  it  is  liable  to 
be  used  as  a  handle  and  to  be  broken  off  and  thus  leave  a 
spot  that  is  very  sure  to  start  to  rotting.  Squashes  should  be 
handled  with  the  greatest  care  if  they  are  to  be  kept  success- 
fully: each  one  should  be  placed  in  the  wagon  or  on  the  shelf 
separately;  if  handled  roughly,  they  will  not  keep.  They 
should  be  carried  in  a  spring  wagon  or  on  a  bed  of  hay  or 
straw. 

Storing.  Winter  squash  keep  best  in  a  dry  atmosphere 
and  at  a  cool  temperature.  They  will,  however,  keep  well  in 
a  warm  or  even  hot  cellar  or  room,  providing  it  is  dry,  but 
quickly  rot  in  a  moist  atmosphere.  They  will  shrink  more  in 
weight  in  a  warm  than  in  a  cool  place.  They  should  be  laid 
on  shelves  one  tier  deep,  and  never  piled  up  if  it  is  desired  to 
keep  them  long.  When  well  hardened  without  exposure  to 
frost  before  storing  and  kept  dry.  the  winter  sorts  are  easily 
kept  until  March. 

The  quality  of   squash  varies  somewhat  according  to  the 
land    on    which    it  is   grown.       Sandy  loam  is   generally    be 
lieved  to  produce  the  best  flavored  dry  flesh  squash. 

Summer  Varieties.  ( OucurUta pepo.)  Summer  Crookneck 
is  a  summer  sort,  generally  with  a  crooked  neck,  that  is  highly 


.* 

4 

% 

* .. 

i 
/■ 

Fig.  110.— Varieties  of  summer  squashes. 
Crookneck.  Boston  Marrow.  Scailoped. 

esteemed.     A   form  of  this  without  the  crooked  neck  is  also 
grown. 

Bush  Scalloped.     Yellow  and  white  varieties  of  this  for 
summer  use  are  much  grown"  by  market  gardeners,   differing 


202  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

only  in  color  of  the  skin.     They  are  round-flat  and    leave    a 
scalloped  edge. 

Fall  and  Winter  Varieties.  [Cucurbita  maxima.)  Hubbard. 
This  is  the  best  known,  and  most  largely  grown  of  the  winter 
varieties.  It  varies  somewhat  in  form,  is  generally  dark 
green  in  color  and  sometimes  marked  with  red.  When  well 
grown  it  has  a  rough  shell  of  flinty  hardness,  thick,  heavy 
flesh  and  cooks  dry.  The  quality  varies  much  according  to 
the  land  on  which  it  is  grown,  sandy  loam  generally  produc- 
ing the  best. 

Marblehead.  Resembles  the  Hubbard  in  quality  of 
flesh,  and  by  many  is  considered  superior.      It  differs  from 


8* 

Fig.   HI.— Hubbard  squash. 

the  Hubbard  in  form  and  color  of  the  skin,  which  is  ashy 
gray,  and  the  flesh  is  much  thinner.  It  yields  less  in  weight 
but  generally  produces  more  squashes  per  acre. 

Essex  Hybrid.  Very  fine  grained,  rich,  sweet  and  a  good 
keeper:  excellent. 

Bay  State.     A  good  variety. 

Boston  Marrow.  Much  grown  for  marketing  and  very 
highly  esteemed  for  summer  and  fall  use. 

Orange  Marrow.     A  form  of  the  Boston  Marrow. 

Miscellaneous  Varieties.  Winter  Crookneck.  One  of  the 
hardiest,  most    reliable    and    best    keeping    squashes,  but    in 


SPINACH.  203 

quality  no  better  than  some  of  the  pumpkins.  Very  little  in 
demand  for  marketing-,  but  popular  in  some  sections  for 
home  use. 

Cocoanut,  Perfect  Gem  and  Chestnut  are  varieties 
producing-  a  large  number  of  small  squashes  of  excellent 
quality  and  very  easily  raised. 


SPINACH.     ( Spinacia  oleracea. ) 

Properly  a  native  of  Western  Asia. — An  annual  plant  cul- 
tivated for  its  leaves,  which  form  a  popular  spring  and  early 
summer  vegetable.  It  has  a  seed  stalk  about  two  feet  high. 
The  varieties  are  divided  according  to  their  seeds  into  round 

and  prickly-seeded 
sorts.  The  latter  have 
sharp,  hard  prickles  on 
the  seeds.  This  division 
is  so  pronounced  that 
some  botanists  have 
treated  these  classes  as 
distinct  species.  The 
prickly-seeded  sorts  are 
considered  the  hardiest, 
while  among  the  round- 
seeded  kinds  are  per- 
haps the  most  desirable 
varieties  for  table  use,  but  this  difference  is  not  always  very 
clear. 

Culture.  The  seed  of  spinach  may  be  sown  in  hotbeds  or 
cold  frames  very  early  in  the  spring  or  outdoors  as  soon  as 
the  ground  can  be  worked.  It  is  of  the  easiest  culture.  A 
supply  may  be  had  during  the  whole  growing-  season  by  mak- 
ing a  succession  of  sowings  at  intervals  of  about  two  weeks. 
Under  good  conditions  it  will  be  ready  for  table  use  six  weeks 
from  the  time  of  sowing  the  seed.  In  planting  it  outdoors 
the  rows  should  be  about  twelve  inches  apart.  The  seed 
should  be  covered  about  one  inch  deep,  and  about  forty  seeds 
or  more  sown  to  the  foot  of  row.  It  is  well  to  use  plenty  of 
seed,  and  since  it  often  starts  poorly  in  dry  weather  extra 
precautious  are  taken  when  sowring  it  at  that  time.  The  plants 
may  be  thinned  out  when  too  thick,  and,  no  matter  how  small, 


Fig.  112.     Spinach. 


204  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

they  are  a  good  vegetable.  Spinach  is  often  sown  in  the 
spring  between  early  peas,  cabbage,  potatoes  or  other  slow 
growing  crops.  For  earliest  spring  use,  seed  of  the  hardiest 
kinds  should  be  sown  in  this  section  the  latter  part  of  August. 
The  plants  should  grow  well  and  attain  a  good  size  during 
the  cool  weather  of  autumn,  and  on  the  approach  of  winter 
they  should  be  covered  with  about  two  inches  of  straw,  hay 
or  similar  material.  When  thus  treated  the  crop  generally 
comes  through  the  winter  in  this  section  without  injury  and 
after  making  a  little  growth  in  the  spring  is  marketable.  It. 
is  harvested  by  cutting  the  plants  off  at  the  top  of  the  ground. 
For  this  purpose  a  short  push  hoe  is  run  under  the  plants. 
They  are  then  freed  from  dead  leaves  and  after  being  washed 
are  ready  for  marketing.  Spinach  requires  a  very  rich  soil 
and  plenty  of  well  rotted  manure.  To  secure  the  best  results 
from  early  spring  sowings,  it  will  pay  those  raising  it  for  mar- 
ket, to  use  nitrate  of  soda  on  the  land  in  small  quantities,  say, 
two  applications  at  the  rate  of  seventy-five  pounds  per  acre  at 
intervals  of  two  weeks  after  the  crop  has  started.  This  ma- 
terial has  a  wonderful  effect  on  early  leaf  crops.  Where 
nitrate  of  soda  is  not  used,  hen  manure  is  very  desirable. 
The  effect  of  nitrate  of  soda  in  this  crop  is  very  marked  and 
often  results  in  more  than  doubling  its  size.  Spinach  gener- 
ally is  very  free  from  insects  and  fungous  diseases. 

Varieties.  There  are  a  number  of  varieties  of  spinach  dif- 
fering in  earliness,  hardiness  and  in  the  time  they  remain  in 
edible  condition,  as  well  as  in  many  minor  matters.  Among 
the  best  are  the  following: 

Long  Standing.  An  excellent  sort  for  spring  and  sum- 
mer sowing,  since  it  stands  longer  than  any  other  sort  before 
going  to  seed. 

Prickly,  or  Winter.  A  prickly  seeded  variety  that  is  very 
popular.  It  will  withstand  very  severe  weather  without  seri- 
ous injury  if  lightly  protected  by  hay  or  straw  and  is.  prob- 
ably, the  best  sort  for  autumn  planting  in  this  section. 

Bloomsdale.  A  fine,  hardy  sort  with  long,  curled 
leaves  of  excellent  quality.     Very  hardy. 

TOMATO.     [Lycopersicum  esculentum.) 
Native  of  South  America. — Perennial,  but  generally  treated 


TOMATOES.  205 

as  an  annual. — The  tomato  is  a  branching-  plant,  generally 
with  flexible  stems  that  require  support  to  grow  erect.  Its 
flowers  are  yellowish  and  grow  in  clusters  on  the  stem,  oppo- 
site or  nearly  opposite  leaves,  not  axillary;  fruit,  a  true 
berry;  seed  kidney-shaped,  flat,  with  a  roughened  surface.  In 
many  parts  of  this  section,  the  tomato  can  be  successfully 
grown  as  a  market  crop,  and  there  is  no  place  where  it  cannot 
"be  grown  in  sufficient  quantities  for  home  use.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  this  vegetable  for  canning  purposes  is  already  occu- 
pying the  attention  of  farmers  in  a  few  localities  in  this  section, 
and  it  is  an  industry  that  is  destined  to  greatly  increase  in  the 
future.  It  is  one  of  the  easiest  and  surest  crops  to  grow,  pro- 
viding one  has  good  plants  to  start  with. 

Growing  the  Plants.  It  is  especially  important  to  sow  the 
seedbeforethe  first  of  April, and  the  middleof  March  isthought 
about  the  right  time  by  most  growers.  The  seed  grows  easily 
but  needs  considerable  heat  and  rich  soil  to  do  its  best.  The 
plants  should  be  "pricked"  out  after  they  have  their  second 
leaves  and  be  transplanted  as  often  as  they  get  crowded,  so 
they  may  become  stout  and  strong.  Hotbeds  may  be  used  for 
this  purpose  or  the  seed  started  in  greenhouses:  it  is  also 
easily  grown  in  window-boxes.  If  too  close  together,  they 
grow  weak  and  poor.  It  is  very  important  that  the  plants 
should  be  well  hardened  off  before  they  are  set  in  the  open 
ground. 

The  land  preferred  for  tomatoes  is  a  rich,  retentive  sandy 
loam,  but  they  will  do  fairly  well  on  almost  any  well  drained 
soil,  and  even  if  on  rather  poor  soil  will  do  better  than  most 
crops.  A  southern  slope  is  preferable,  but  they  will  ripen  al- 
most anywhere  if  properly  managed.  The  tomato  preemi- 
nently needs  a  warm  place,  and  if  rich  manure  is  plowed  into 
the  soil  it  is  beneficial,  since  by  its  fermentation  it  raises  the 
temperature  of  the  land. 

Transplanting  and  After-cultivation.  The  plants  should  be 
moved  to  the  open  ground  as  soon  as  all  danger  of  severe  frost 
is  past,  which  will  generally  be  about  the  twentieth  of  May  in 
southern  Minnesota  and  not  until  the  first  of  June  in  more 
northern  sections.  They  should  be  set  about  five  feet  apart 
each  way  and  about  six  inches  deep.  If  the  stems  of  the  plants 
when  planted  out    are  very  long,  they  should  be  partly  buried 


206 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


under  ground.     They  need  thorough  cultivation,  which  can  be 
best  given  by  a  horse  cultivator. 

Pruning  and  Training.  Tomato  plants  under  field  cultivation 
are  generally  allowed  to  run  over  the  ground  in  any  direction 
and  are  not  trained:  but  even  under  this  method  of  manage- 
ment it  is  a  good  plan  to  cut  off  a  foot  or  more  of  the  ends  of 
all  growing  shoots  about  the  middle  of  August,  so  that  all  the 
strength  of  the  plant  may  go  to  ripen  the  fruit  that  is  well 
formed  and  still  green.     Some  growers  advise  pruning  off    all 

but  one  main  stem  and 
two  or  three  laterals 
and  training  to  a  stake 
and  then  pinching  off 
all  flower  clusters  after 
a~^few  have  /set  a  fruit. 
The  result  of  this  prac- 
tice here  is  still  some- 
what doubtful.  It  is  a 
good  plan  in  a  small 
garden  to  cover  the 
land  under  the  vines  af- 
ter they  set  fruit  with  a 
little  hay,  so  that  the 
fruit  may  be  kept  from 
getting  dirty  in  case 
they  are  not  trained. 
This  covering  should 
not  be  heavy  enough  to 
keep  the  ground  from 
getting  plenty  of  sun- 
light. 

Tomatoes  in  very  Severe  Locations.  When  there  is  danger  of 
frost  in  August,  a  sufficient  supply  of  tomatoes  for  family 
use  may  be  grown  on  the  south  side  of  a  house,  wall  or  other 
protection,  especially  if  the  plants  are  covered  on  cold  nights. 
Where  this  seems  to  be  impracticable,  a  most  excellent  way  is 
to  grow  a  few  plants  in  barrels  placed  in  warm  corners  about 
the  buildings.  To  do  this,  at  planting  time  select  a  barrel  as 
large  as  a  coal  oil  barrel,  bore  three  or  four  holes  in  the 
bottom,    sink   the   barrel    about   one-third    its    depth    in   the 


®Mm^% 


Fig.113.— Tomato  plant  growing  in  a  barrel  and 
trained  against  side  of  building. 


TOMATOES. 


207 


ground  and  pack  the  earth  around  it.  Fill  it  about  half  full 
of  fresh  horse  manure  well  tramped  clown  and  pour  a  bucket- 
ful of  hot  water  on  this  manure.  Then  put  on  eight  inches  of 
good  soil  and  then  a  mixture  of  well-rotted  manure  and  rich 
black  loam  in  about  equal  quantities,  until  you  reach  within 
about  twelve  inches  of  the  top  of  the  barrel:  then  heap  up 
manure  around  the  outside.  Set  three  plants  in  this  and  trim 
to  two  shoots  each.  Train  one  of  these  shoots  from  each 
plant  to  stakes  or  ,near-by  building,  but  allow  the  other  three 
shoots  to  grow  naturally  over  the  sides  of  the  barrel.  Be 
careful  to  give  plenty  of  water  daily — a  gallon  each  day  will 


<4i*jfe^&^4ft|0Mfc 


Fig.  114.— Varieties  of  tomatoes.  1.— Dwarf  Champion.  2—  New  Imperial. 
3.— Thorburn.  4.— Virginia  Corker.  5.—  Landreth's  110  days.  6.— 
Landreth's  95  days.  7.— Landreth's  100  days.  8.— Landreth's  105 
davs.  9.— Landreth's  115  days.  10.— Waldorf.  11.—  Landreth's  105 
days  12.— Fordhook  First.  13.— Early  Wilcox.  14.— Clover  Crest 
Giant. 

be  none  to  much.  Three  or  four  old  barrels  treated  in  this 
way  and  placed  in  sunny  exposures  will  produce  all  the  toma- 
toes needed  by  a  family  of  four  or  five  persons. 

Prolonging  the  Tomato  Season.  In  autumn  the  tomato  season 
may  be  prolonged  by  pulling  the  plants  with  the  unripened 
fruit  on  them  and  hanging  them  in  a  shed,  wThere  they  will 
continue  to  ripen  fruit  for  some  time.  The  larger  tomatoes 
will  ripen  very  well  if  picked  off  and  kept  in  a  shady  place. 

Saving  Tomato  Seed.    Tomato  seed  should   be  saved   from 


208  VEGETABLE  GARDENING, 

the  best  tomatoes  from  vines  producing  the  largest  amount  of 
good  fruit.  The  tomatoes  should  be  thrown  into  a  barrel  as 
fast  as  they  ripen  and  be  allowed  to  ferment  until  the  seed 
separates  readily  from  the  pulp,  when  they  should  be  put  into 
water  and  thoroughly  stirred.  The  skin  and  pulp  being 
lighter,  the  seed  is  readily  separated  from  it.  The  seed  should 
T^e  dried  at  once  by  spreading  it  out  thinly  in  a  dry  place. 

Varieties.  There  are  many  varieties  of  tomatoes  adapted 
to  general  cultivation.  Among  the  best  of  these  are  Acme 
and  Dwarf  Champion,  which  are  early,   smooth  kinds  having 


Fig.  115.— Tomato  Rot. 

a  pink  skin.  Of  the  red-skinned  sorts  Perfection  and  Beauty 
are  very  good.  The  earliest  varieties  are  not  always  the 
best  to  grow  for  a  general  crop,  as  they  are  uneven  and  in- 
ferior to  the  varieties  mentioned.  However,  in  many  unfav- 
orable locations,  it  may  be  best  to  grow  them,  as  they  do 
very  well  for  home  use.  Of  these  the  earliest  is  called  Earliest 
of  All,  but  there  are  several  other  very  early  kinds. 

Insects.  The  tomato  is  subject  to  few  insect  pests.  It  is 
sometimes  attacked  by  the  potato  beetle  when  potato 
vines  are  not  convenient  for  them.  The  remedy  is  Paris 
green  and  water,  as  recommended  for  the  same  insect  when  it 
attacks  the  potato. 

Tomato  Rot.    There  are  several  diseases  that  attack  the  to- 


STRAWBERRY  TOMATO. 


209 


mato  when  grown  in  greenhouses,  but  only  that  known  as  the 
"rot"  is  often  seriously  injurious  to  plants  grown  in  the  open 
field.  This  is  a  fungous  disease.  The  germs  of  this  fungus 
lodge  in  the  end  of  the  fruit  when  it  is  very  small,  probably 
often  just  as  the  flowers  fall  off.  By  their  growth,  they  rot 
the  end  of  the  tomato  and  often  cause  much  havoc. 

Remedies.  The  disease  lives  over  winter  in  the  ground 
where  the  rotten  tomatoes  have  fallen.  The  diseased  fruit 
should  therefore  be  gathered  and  burned  or  buried  a  foot  or 
more  deep,  where  they  will  not  be  disturbed  in  the  spring. 
Some  varieties  are  much  more  liable  to  rot  than  others.  The 
Dwarf  Champion  is  perhaps  less  affected  than  many  other 
kinds.  Experiments  in  spraying  the  young  fruit  with  Bor- 
deaux mixture, or  a  solution  of  sulphide  of  potassium  at  the 
rate  of  one-half  ounce  per  gallon,  are  said  to  have  given  good 
results  in  some  cases,  but  it  is  generally  considered  imprac- 
ticable to  do  this.  They  are  less  liable  to  rot  when  growing 
on  new  land  than  on  land  that  has  been  used  for  several 
years  in  tomatoes. 

GROUND  CHERRY,  or  STRAWBERRY  TOMATO.     [Phys- 

alis  sp. ) 
Native  of  North  and  South  Am- 
erica— Perennial. — There  are  several 
species  of  Physalis  that  produce 
edible  fruit.  Among  those  indigen- 
ous to  northern  United  States  is 
one  quite  common  in  old  timber  land 
in  northern  Minnesota  and  elsewhere. 
The  fruit  resembles  a  tomato  but  is 
about  the  size  of  a  cherry  and  is  en- 
closed in  a  calyx,  which  forms  a 
husk  around  it.  The  seed  is  dark  col- 
ored, flat  and  round.  The  fruit  is 
used  for  preserves  and  sauces. 

Culture.  It  is  of  the  easiest  cul- 
ture and  when  once  sowrn  generally 
covers  the  ground  in  following  years 
from  self  sown  seed.  The  seed  should 
be  planted    about   the   first    of     May. 

The    plants    spread    about    thirty    inches. 


Pig.  116.— Ground  Cherry  or 
Strawberry  Tomato. 


210 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


TURNIP  [Brassica  Napus.)  and  RUTABAGA,  or  SWEDISH 
TURNIP  (Brassica  campestris. ) 

Natives  of  Europe  or  Asia. — Biennials. — Cultivated  for 
their  swollen,  fleshy  roots.  The  varieties  of  turnip  and  ruta- 
baga vary  much  in  form,  size  and  color  of  the  skin,  and  the 
flesh  is  white  or  yellow,  pungent  or  slightly  acid.  There  is 
more  difference  in  the  varieties  of  the  turnip  than  of  the  ruta- 
baga.   The  flower  stalks  are  produced    the    second    year   and 

bear  a  large  num- 


ber of  yellow  flow- 
ers. The  seeds 
are  smooth  and 
round  like  the 
seed  of  the  cab- 
bage and  cauli- 
flower and  in 
similar  shaped 
pods. 

Turnip.  The  tur- 
nip is  essentially 
a  cool  weather 
plant  and  does 
best  when  most  of 
its  growth  is  made 
during  the  autumn.  It  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  the  spring, 
but  there  is  very  little  call  for  it  until  cool  weather. 

Culture.  The  turnip  needs  to  be  grown  very  rapidly  to 
have  the  best  quality.  The  best  soil  for  it  is  a  friable  rich 
sandy  loam  free  from  fresh  manure;  sod  land  that  has  been 
recently  broken  up  is  excellent  for  this  purpose,  but  on  old 
land.  i.  e.,  that  which  has  been  cultivated  for  several  years, 
or  where  there  is  fresh  manure,  the  roots  are  often  wormy. 
When  grown  for  early  use  some  quick  maturing  kind  should 
be  planted  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  soil  can  be  worked, 
in  rows  fifteen  inches  apart.  The  seed  should  be  sown  rather 
thickly  and  the  seedlings  thinned  out  two  or  three  inches 
apart  after  all  danger  from  the  flea  beetle  has  passed.  (This 
insect  is  the  same  as  that  which  attacks  the  cabbage.  )  Tur- 
nips grown  for  late  use  generally  come  in 'as  a  second  crop 
after  grain,    strawberries,  early  potatoes,  cabbage  or    other 


Fig.  117.— White  strap  leaved  turnips. 


RUTABAGAS.  211 

crop  that  is  off  the  land  by  the  first  of  August,  since  after 
this  time  a  good  crop  of  many  varieties  of  late  turnips  will 
mature  before  winter,  though  some  of  the  large  kinds  need  to 
be  sown  earlier  in  the  season.  The  seed  is  sometimes  sown 
broadcast  just  before  a  shower  or  else  it  is  harrowed  in.  It 
is  also  grown  in  rows  about  two  feet  apart  and  cultivated 
by  a  horse  cultivator,  or  the  rows  may  be  put  nearer  to- 
gether and  a  hand  cultivator  used. 

Varieties.  Some  of  the  best  varieties  of  turnips  are: 
Early  Flat  and  Extra  Early  Milan  for  early  use,  Red  Top  Strap 
Leaf  and  White  Egg  or  White  Globe  for  autumn  use. 

Rutabagas  are  grown  in  the  same  manner  as  the  common 
turnips  but  require  about  four  weeks  longer  to  attain  edible 
size  and,  on  this  account,  should  be  planted  by  the  middle  of 

June  or  first  of  July.- 
They  are  generally  grown 
in  rows  thirty  inches 
apart  and  cultivated  with 
a  horse  hoe.  Rutabagas 
are  sometimes  grown  in 
beds  and  transplanted. 
This  is  not  done  with  tur- 
nips. 

The  seed  of  both  tur- 
nips and  rutabagas  is  so 
smooth  and  fine  that  it  is 
generally  sown  too  thick. 
Mixing  the  seed  with  flour 
is  a  good  way  to  prevent  its  running  too  rapidly  through 
the  seed  sower.  The  crop  should  be  allowed  to  stay  in  the 
ground  until  the  approach  of  severe  cold  weather.  They  will 
stand  some  little  freezing  without  injury,  but  will  not  live  in 
the  land  over  winter.  They  should  be  stored  in  frost  proof 
pit  or  cellars.  In  dry  cellars  they  should  be  covered  with  a 
few  inches  of  sand  or  other  material  to  prevent  wilting.  (  See 
directions  for  keeping  carrots. ) 

Varieties.  Improved  Purple  Top  Swede,  and  White 
Rock,  are  both  excellent  varieties  of  rutabagas. 


Fig.  118.— Rutabagas. 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR. 

Under  this  head  some  of  the  principal  operations  of  the 
year  in  the  more  northern  states  are  referred  to,  but  these  can 
be  regarded  only  as  suggestive,  since  individual  conditions 
as  well  as  the  weather  vary  from  year  to  year.  The  point 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance, 
and  for  the  greatest  profit,  to  have  all  garden  work  done  at 
the  proper  time;  and  to  do  this  considerable  planning  and 
studying  will  be  necessary  in  laying  out  eaeh  day's  work,  as 
well  as  the  work  of  the  season,  so  as  to  make  the  most  of  the 
opportunities  offered  by  weather  and  season. 

January.  The  outdoor  work  is  generally  quite  at  a  stand- 
still this  month,  except  that  manure  may  be  drawn  from  the 
stable  to  the  fields  needing  it,  where  it  may  be  piled  and 
forked  over.  Plan  out  the  work  of  the  season,  aiming  to  have 
the  ground  and  the  time  of  your  help  occupied  all  the  time. 
In  doing  this  it  is  generally  best  to  plan  to  raise  those  crops 
that  will  not  require  a  large  amount  of  work  at  the  same 
season,  but  rather  those  that  will  give  a  succession  of  work. 
Market  any  celery,  squash  or  other  vegetables  for  which  there 
is  a  demand. 

Send  for  seed  catalogues  of  leading  dealers.  Decide 
what  you  are  going  to  want.  Test  the  quality  of  the  seeds 
you  have  on  hand  and  get  your  new  stock  of  seed  early. 

February.  The  work  of  this  month  differs  but  little  from 
that  of  January,  but,  in  addition,  the  following  may  be  men- 
tioned: During  the  latter  part  of  the  month  prepare  manure 
for  early  hotbeds  to  be  started  the  first  of  March.  Inspect 
tools,  wagons,  harnesses,  boxes  and  crates  for  marketing 
and  hotbed  sash,  and  get  them  into  shape  for  the  busy 
season.  In  the  greenhouse,  cabbage  and  cauliflower  plants 
may    be  started:  and  as  soon   as  of  transplanting   size  they 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR  113 

should  be  removed  to  cold  frames,  where  they   should  remain 
until  the  ground  is  ready  for  planting  out. 

March.  Make  up  hotbeds  and  sow  in  them  tomatoes,  pep- 
pers, cabbage,  lettuce,  radishes,  cress,  onions  for  transplant- 
ing, carrots,  beets,  celery,  etc.  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
month  cold  frames  may  be  used  for  the  hardy  vegetables. 

If  the  ground  is  fit  to  work,  onion  sets  may  be  planted  and 
spinach,  hardy  peas,  and  other  plants  which  are  generally 
not  sown  until  April  may  be  sown  at  this  time.  Harden  off 
the  early  cabbage  and  cauliflower  plants. 

April.  The  hotbeds  and  cold  frames  should  be  in  constant 
use.  Plantations  of  asparagus  and  rhubarb  may  be  made 
during  this  and  the  following  month. 

Sow  hardy  (smooth)  peas,  lettuce,  celery,  radishes,  cab- 
bage, cauliflower,  turnips,  onions  and  spinach,  and  plant 
early  potatoes  as  soon  as  the  land  is  fit  to  be  worked.  By 
the  end  of  the  month,  wrinkled  peas,  salsify  and  parsnips  may 
be  sown.  See  that  tomatoes  sown  last  month  are  transplanted 
into  beds  or  boxes  so  as  to  have  plenty  of  room.  Transplant 
cabbage  plants  for  the  early  crop,  putting  them  in  deep  enough 
to  completely  cover  the  stems, 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  month,  all  the  early  planted  crops 
may  need  cultivating  and  some  of  them  thinning,  though  but 
little  of  this  is  generally  necessary  until  May.  Radishes,  let- 
tuce, spinach  and  onions  from  sets  sown  in  hotbeds  in  March 
should  be  fit  to  eat  or  to  market. 

Haul  out  manure  and  plow  land  for  planting  next  month. 
Transplant  onion  plants  from  the  hotbeds  to  open  ground. 

May  is  the  month  when  the  larger  part  of  the  vegetables 
are  planted. 

By  the  middle  of  the  month  it  is  often  safe  to  plant  the 
more  tender  vegetables,  such  as  cucumbers,  squash,  melons 
and  beans,  in  the  open  ground  although  nothing  is  gained  by 
so  doing  if  the  ground  is  cold,  when  it  would  be  better  to  wait 
until  ten  days  later.  Corn  is  frequently  planted  by  the  middle 
of  the  month,  and  in  early  seasons  it  is  a  good  plan  to  ven- 
ture a  little  of  some  very  early  kind  during  the  first  week  of 
May.     Plant  potatoes  for  general  crops. 


214  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

All  the  early  planted  crops  need  cultivating  frequently, 
and  those  in  drills  need  to  be  thinned. 

Plantings  for  succession  may  be  made  of  all  vegetable 
seeds  and  sets  put  in  last  month. 

Sow  cabbage  for  winter  use. 
Lettuce,  radishes,  beets,  spinach,  asparagus,  rhubarb  and 
bunch  onions  should  now  be  large  enough  for  use. 

Harden  off  tomato  plants  and  set  them  out  the  first  part  of 
next  month. 

June.  Set  out  tomatoes,  celery  for  early  use,  peppers, 
egg  plant,  late  cabbage  and  cauliflower  plants  and  sow  winter 
beets. 

Plant  cucumbers  for  pickles  and  beans  for  main  crop. 
Plant  Lima  beans  the  early  part  of  the  month.  Market  the 
same  vegetables  as  last  month  and  in  addition,  early  peas 
and,  perhaps,  early  cabbage. 

Weeding  commences  in  earnest  this  month  and  should 
begin  early,  since  if  neglected  it  may  be  cheaper  to  plow  up 
the  whole  crop  rather  than  weed  it  out. 

Keep  the  soil  well  stirred  with  the  cultivator. 

Sow  rutabaga    turnips. 

Stop  cutting  asparagus  by  the  twentieth  of  the  month. 
Clean  up  the  bed.  manure  and  plow  it. 

July.    Plant  celery  for  main  and  late  crop. 

Sow  string  beans,  winter  radish  and  rutabaga  turnips. 

Early  potatoes,  string  beans,  cabbage,  summer  squashes, 
cucumbers,  green  corn,  onions  from  sets  and  cauliflowers  are 
now  of  edible  size  in  addition  to  those  vegetables  nearing 
maturity  last  month. 

Continued  cultivation  is  necessary  to  protect  from  drouth 
and  to  keep  plants  growing. 

August.  Sow  string  beans  and  flat  early  turnips,  spinach  for 
spring  use,  winter  radishes  and  early  peas. 

The  late  crops  are  now  maturing,  and  we  have  tomatoes, 
squashes,  the  better  kinds  of  sweet  corn  and  egg-plant,  on- 
ions from  early  sown  seed  and  those  transplanted  are  now  dry 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR.  215 

and  marketable.  Lima  beans  will  be  ready  for  use  the  latter 
part  of  the  month. 

Keep  weeds  from  going  to  seed. 

Sow  lettuce  for  growing  in  hotbeds  or  cold  frames  for 
Thanksgiving. 

September.  The  cool  nights  of  this  month  are  especially 
favorable  to  such  crops  as  celery,  cabbage  and  cauliflower, 
and  they  should  be  carefully  cultivated. 

Melons,  winter  squash,  and  celery  are  now  marketable. 

Handle  celery:  i.  e.,  partially  earth  up  around  it. 

First  frosts  may  now  be  expected  by  the  fifteenth  of  the 
month,  and  the  half-ripened  tomatoes  should  be  picked  and 
allowed  to  ripen  in  some  shady  place. 

Dig  potatoes. 

Transplant  lettuce  to  hotbeds  or  cold  frames.  Plant  out 
hardy  perennial  onions  for  bunching  in  the  early  spring. 

October.  Winter  celery  should  be  banked  up  to  protect  it 
from  severe  frosts,  and  on  severe  nights  it  should  be  covered 
with  straw  or  hay  for  protection.  It  should  all  be  stored 
away  by  the  end  of  the  month  unless  plenty  of  protection  is 
provided  in  the  shape  of  straw,  in  which  case  it  is  safe  to 
leave  it  out  until  the  10th  of  November.  Such  crops  will  not 
stand  with  immunity  as  much  frost  in  the  western  states  as  in 
the  eastern  states.  Pull  and  store  cabbages, dig  beets,  carrots, 
parsnips,  salsify  and  potatoes  and  store  in  pits  or  put  at  once 
into  the  cellar.  Some  parsnips  and  salsify  may  be  left  on 
high  land  to  be  dug  in  the  spring.     Plant  out  rhubarb  roots. 

Attend  to  fall  plowing  and  leave  in  ridges  any  very  heavy 
land  that  is  needed  for  early  spring  use. 

November.  In  the  more  northern  states  this  month  gener- 
ally closes  up  the  work  of  the  season.  All  the  crops  should 
be  gathered  in  the  early  part  of  the  month. 

Clean  up  the  garden,  frames  and  hotbeds  and  get  them 
ready  for  spring  work. 

The  lettuce  sown  in  August  and  transplanted  to  hotbeds 
Or  cold  frames  should  be  fit  to  market  this  month. 

Market  all  the  vegetables  on  hand  that  will  bring  a  fair 


216  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

price,    unless  wanted  for  some  special  purpose  or  at  an  as- 
sured price. 

Cover  winter  spinach  and  hardy  onion  sets  with  hay  as 
soon  as  the  ground  begins  to  freeze  hard  at  night, to  prevent 
freezing  and  thawing. 

December.  Clean  up  the  garden  and  continue  the  market- 
ing of  vegetables  if  it  is  not  already  attended  to. 

Carefully  study  the  season's  work,  note  the  profits  or 
losses  on  the  last  crop,  and  what  has  been  learned  that  will 
be  useful  another  year. 

At  Odd  Times  the  following  may  be  attended  to: — Gather 
manure,  make  crates  and  boxes  for  marketing  fruits,  vegetables 
and  plants,  repair  tools,  wagons,  harnesses,  sashes,  hotbeds 
and  cold  frames.     Clean  up! 


TABLES. 


217 


WEIGHT  OF   ONE  QUART   OF  SEEDS   AND  NUMBER  OF  SEEDS 
IN  ONE  OUNCE. 


KIND  OF  SEED. 

Weight  of  a 
Quart  of 
Seed  in 
Ounces. 

Number   of 

Seeds   in 
One  Ounce. 

Asparagus, 

32 
20 
20 
24  to  33 
10 
25 
25 
25 
15 
9 
13 
28 
25 
17 
14 
20 
28 
2  02/3 
18 
20 

11 

18 

12 

25 

20 

151/3 

23 

20 

24 

1  01/3 

13 

22 

18 
25  to  28V2 
21  to  281/2 

1,400 
56,600 

22,665 

200  to  225 

Beet                 

1,400 

8,500 

Broseoli 

10,525 
8,500 

9,915 

19,835 

26,915 

3,400 

10.525 

Celery 

70,835 

19,830 

Cress,  American, 

16,915 
12.715 

113,335 

1,103 

3,680 

34,000  to  42,500- 

Dill 

25,500 

6,520 

E-dive 

18,000 

8,500 

Leek, 

11,335 

22,665 

113  to  140 

113,355 

340.000 

565 

1,560 

425  to  510 

7,080 

56  to  14-2 

142  to  225 

6,605 

Pepper, 

16 

9 

25 

28V2 

3  to  4V2 

19% 

8 
18 
15 
13V2 
142/3 

8 
14 
15V2 
23 
24 
11 
24 

16/2 

4,205 

85 

Radish, 

700,835 

3,400 

1,415 

7,080 

Salsifv 

2,835 

42,500 

70,835 

2,550 

3,135 

280  to  340 

93 

280 

28,335 

170,000 

8,500  to  11,335 

12,715 

113  to  150 

218 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


LONGEVITY  OF  GARDEN  SEED. 

(WHEN  PROPERLY   STORED.) 


KIND  OF  SEED. 


Average 
Years. 


KIND  OF  SEED. 


Average 
Years. 


Balm 

Basil 

Bean 

Beet 

Borecole 

Cabbage 

Caraway 

Carrot 

Catmint 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Chicory 

Cress,  American 

"       Common  Garden.. 

Water 

Cucumber  common 

Prickly-fruited 
Gherkin 

Dandelion 

Dill 

Egg-Plant 

Endive 

Kohlrabi 

Eeek 

Lettnce,  common 

Maize,  or  Indian  Corn.... 

Marjoram,  Sweet 

Winter 


3 

6 

5 

5 

3 
4  or  5 

6 

5 

8 

8 

3 

5 

5 
10 

6 

2 

3 

6 
10 

5 

3 

5 

2 

3 

5 


Martynia 1  or  2 

Muskmelon 5 

Mustard,  white  or  salad  4 

Okra 5 

Onion I  2 

Parsnip 2 

I 

Parsley 3 

Pea.     Garden  or  field I  3 

Pepper 4 

Pumpkin 4  or  5 

Radish 5 

Rampion 5 

Rhnoarb 3 

Rosemary '  4 

Rue |  2 

Sage 3 

Salsify 2 

Savory, summer  or  wint'r  3 

Spinach,  all  kinds, 5 

Squash,  Hubbard 6 

"            Bush  scalloped..  6 

Strawbery  Tomato 8 

Thyme 3 

Tomato 4 

Turnip 5 

Watermelon 6 


TABLES.  219 

AMOUNT  OF  SEED    REQUIRED  TO  SOW  AN  ACRE. 


KIND  OF  SEED 


METHOD  OF  SOWING 


Amt.  per  Acre 


Asparagus 

Beans,  Dwarf, 

Pole 

Beet, 

Cabbage, 

Carrot, 

Cauliflower 

Celery, 

Corn 

Cucumber, 

Cress,  water  or  upland 

Egg-Plant 

Kale,  or  Sprouts 

Lettuce 

Muskmelon, 

Melon,  Water, 

Onion, 

,seed  for  sets 

"       .sets 

Parsnip 

Peas,  

Potato  (cut  tubers) 

Pumpkin 

Radish, 

Sage 

Sulsify, 

Spinach, 

Squash,  Bush, 

'•  Running, 

Tomato, 

Turnip, 


1  oz.  for  50  ft.  of  drill,  or. 
In  drills 


In  beds  to  transplant. 

In  drills 

1  oz.  for  1000  plants.. 
1  oz.  for  2000  plants.. 
In  hills 


In  drills 

1  oz.  for  1000  plants. 

In  drills 

1  oz.  for  1000  plants. 

In  hills 

In  hills 

In  drills 

In  drills 


Broadcast. 


In  hills.. 
In  drills. 


In  hills. 


To  transplant. 

In  drills 

Broadcast 


4  to     5  lbs. 

lVobus. 
10  to  12  qts. 

5  to     6  lbs. 

y4    lb. 
2  to     4  lbs. 


8  to  10  qts. 

2  lbs. 

2  tO     3  lbs. 


3  to     4  lbs. 


2  to 

4  to 

5  to 

6  to 
4  to 

1  to 

2  to 

7  to 
4  to 

8  to 
8  to 
8  to 

10  to 
4  to 

3  to 

1  to 
3  to 


3  lbs. 

5  lbs. 

6  lbs. 
30  lbs. 
12bus. 

6  lbs. 

2  bus. 

3  bus. 
10  bus. 

5  lbs. 
10  lbs. 
10  lbs. 
10  lbs. 
12  qts. 

6  lbs. 

4  lbs. 
%  lb. 

2  lbs. 
4  lbs. 


AVERAGE  TIME  REQUIRED  FOR  GARDEN    SEEDS  TO 
GERMINATE. 

(UNDER  GOOD   CONDITIONS.) 


KIND  OF  SEED. 

No.Days. 

KIND  OF  SEED. 

No.  Days. 

5  to  10 
7  to  10 
5  to  10 

12  to  18 
5  to  10 

10  to  20 

5  to     8 

6  to  10 
5  to  10 

6  to     8 

Beet 

7  to  10 

Pea 

6  to  10 

Carrot 

Parsnip, .  ... 

10  to  20 

9  to  14 

Celerv,... 

3  to     6 

Corn, 

Salsify 

7  to  12 

6  to  12 

Endive,... 

4  to     8 

220 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


VITALITY   OF  GOOD  MERCHANTABLE  SEED. 

THE     RHODE     ISLAND     EXPERIMENT     STATION    SUGGESTS   THE 
FOLLOWING   AS   LABORATORY  STANDARDS   FOR  SEEDS, 


KIND  OF  SEED. 


Per  Cent  of  Vi- 
tality. 


Beet,  (in  100  pods) 

Cabbage, 

Carrot, 

Celery, 

Cucumber 

Egg-Plant, 

Lettuce 

Onion, 

P  arsni  p , 

Pepper, 

Radish, 

Tomato, 

Turnip, 


133 

89 
59 
32 

86 
60 

77 
85 
77 
76 
95 
80 
94 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Acre  inch  of  water 8 

Anise 148 

Ash.  pei  cent  in  vegetables 14 

Asparagus 99 

bunching 102 

cultivation  101 

cutting 102 

forcing 104 

manuring 103 

planting 101 

propagation 99 

varieties  104 

Balm 148 

Beans 104 

bush 105 

diseases 108 

harvesting 196 

insects 108 

pole , 107 

transplanting 107 

preserving  in  salt 108 

varieties 106 

Beet 108 

diseases Ill 

forcing 110 

harvesting 110 

storing 110 

swiss  chard 112 

Borecole 151 

Boxes  for  transplanting 77 

Brussels   sprouts 112 

Cabbage 113 

diseases 121 

hardening  off  plants 115 

harvesting. 116-118 

hill  sowing 118 

insects 121 

manure  for   114 

pitting 120 

retarding  heading  of 116 

sauer  kraut  122 


Cabbage—  Page. 

seed  raising 119 

seed  sowing 117 

setting  plants , 115 

soil 113-116 

varieties 121 

Calendar,  monthly 212 

Caraway 148 

Carbon  bisulphide 83 

Carrot 123 

cultivation 129 

forcing 125 

gathering 124 

storing 125 

varieties 125 

Cauliflower 126 

varieties 128 

Celariac 137 

Celery 128 

bleaching  with  boards 132 

bleaching  with  earth 132 

bleaching,  time  required  for 155 

digging 134 

diseases  135 

handling 132 

marketing 137 

onions  with 131 

planting 130 

storing 134 

varieties 139 

Citron  melon 159 

Cold  frames  (see  greenhouses)...  61 

Commercial  fertilizers   15 

Compost  heap 19 

Corn 137 

classes  of 137 

cultivation  138 

cutting  off  tassels 141 

diseases 141 

marketing 139 

pop 140 

preserving 140 


222 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


Corn—                                            Page, 
varieties 139 

Cress  142 

water 142 

Cucumber 142 

cultivation 143 

insects 145 

salting 144 

starting  in  cold  frames 144 

varieties 145 

Cultivation,  general 30 

Dandelion ' 146 

Dill 148 

Diseases— 

anthracnose  of  bean 

beet  scab 

blight  or  rust  of  celery... 

leaf  blight  of  celery 

potato  blight 

scab 


...108 
...111 
...136' 
...186 
...191 
...189 

club  root  of  cabbage 121 

smut  of  corn 141 

lettuce  mildew 156 

Eggplant 146 

Endive 147 

Germinating  apparatus 94 

Greenhouse  hotbed 67 

Greenhouses  70 

boxes 77 

glass 79 

glazing 79 

heating 73 

lean-to 69-71 

mats 74 

miscellaneous  notes  on 79 

radiating  surface 73 

sash 79 

shading 78 

shutters 65-74 

soil 77 

substitutes  for  glass 78 

temperature 75 

ventilation 75 

watering 76 

Ground    cherry 209 

Herbs 148 

Horseradish  150 

Hot  beds  (see  also  greenhouses)    63 

Implements 32 

Breeds  weeder 36 


Insects—  Page, 

combined  drills  and  cultivators.  34 

dibbers 3.4 

hand 33 

horse 33 

marker 36 

plank  drag 36 

potato  diggers 36 

hoe 35 

seed  drills 33 

spray  pumps 36 

Insecticides 81 

application  of 86 

carbon  bisulphide 83 

kerosene  emulsion 83 

London  purple 82 

Paris  green 82 

pyrethrum 81 

tobacco 82 

Insects 81 

aphis 95 

cabbage  aphis 95 

bean  weevil 97 

cabbage  flea  beetle 94 

flosia  88 

worms 86 

catching 84 

celery  caterpillar... 96 

chinch  bug 96 

cucumber  beetle 90 

cut  worms 89 

moth  or  corn  worm 96 

leaf  lice 95 

maggots 93 

may  beetle 92 

parsley  worm 96 

potato  beetle 85 

pea  weevil 97 

squash  bug...  98 

squash  vine  borer 97 

tassel  worm 96 

white    grub 92 

wire  worms 89 

Irrigation 7 

acre  inch  of  water 8 

amount  of  water  needed 7-8 

application  of  water 9 

rules  for 9 

cultivation  as  an  aid  to 7 

humus,  an  aid  to 8 


INDEX. 


223 


Irrigation- 
mulching  

pumping  water  for 

reservoirs 

storage  capacity  for 

sub-irrigation , 

temperature  of  watei 

Kale 


Page. 


8 

10 

10 

151 

Kitchen  garden 49 

Kohl-rabi 151 

varieties 152 

Leeks 152 

cultivation 152 

varieties 153 

Lettuce 153 

cultivation 153 

diseases 156 

varieties 155 

Lima  beans 106 

London  purple 82 

Manure  pile 18 

Manures 12 

action  of.... 12 

animal 16.24 

application  of 24 

commercial 19 

—composition  of 15 

—ground  blood 20 

—ground  bones 20 

— kainite 22 

—land  plaster 22 

-lime 22 

—nitrate  of  soda 20 

—salt 20 

—sulphate  of  ammonia 22 

—superphosphates 22 

—tankage 19 

—wood  ashes 22 

composition  of  farm 14 

compost  heap 19 

cow 17 

for  early  crops 24 

•     late        '•     24 

••     leguminous  crops 24 

hen 17 

horse 17 

humus 12 

liquid 25 

mixing 18 

sheep 18 


Manures—  Page. 

swine 17 

use  of  fresh 24 

Manuring  growing  crops 25 

Martynia 156 

Melon,  musk 156 

culture 157 

varieties 158 

Melon,  preserving 159 

Melon  water 158 

culture 158 

varieties 158 

Mixing  varieties 60 

Monthly  calendar 212 

Mulching 7 

Mushrooms 159 

culture 160 

native  species  of 160 

Novelties 55 

Okra 173 

varieties 174 

Onions 162 

cultivation 165 

land  for 163 

marketing 171 

onion  sets 167 

perennial 172 

potato 172 

sc  allions 166 

seed  173 

sowing  seed 164 

storing 167 

t  r  ansplan  ting 169 

varieties 172 

Oyster  plant 198 

Parsley 175 

culture 176 

varieties 176 

Parsnip 174 

culture 174 

varieties 175 

Paris  green 82 

Peas 176 

culture 177 

insects 97 

varieties 178 

Peppers 179 

culture 180 

varieties 180 

Peppermint 150 


224 


VEGETABLE   GARDENING. 


Page. 

Pieplant 195 

Plowing 28 

subsoil 28 

Pollenizing  flowers 59 

Potatoes 180 

cutting  seed 182 

demand  for 187 

digging 185 

diseases 189 

early  planting  183 

insects 189 

main  crop 184 

manuring 182 

origin 181 

pitting 185 

propagation,  notes  on 188 

"running  out"'   of 183 

sets  or  "seeds" 182 

soil 182 

starch 187 

varieties 187 

Pumpkins 193 

Radishes 193 

culture 194 

varieties 195 

Rhubarb 194 

culture 194 

propagation 194 

Ridging  land 30 

Rotating  crops 7 

Rotation  of  crops 11 

reasons   for 11 

Rutabagas 211 

Sage 150 

Salsify 198 

culture 198 

Sauer  kraut 122 

Seed 52 

changing 54 

curing 54 

germinating  apparatus  for 53 

stock 55 

storing 54 

testing 52 

vitality  of 218 

Seed  sowing 39 

depth 39 

time 40 

firming  by  feet 42 

Seedsmen's  humbugs 55 

specialties 55 

Seed  tables 218-219-220 

amount  for  acre 219 

longevity 218 


Seed  tables—  Page 

number  of  seeds  in  an  ounce 217 

time  to  germinate 219 

weight  of  seeds 217 

Soils 5 

for  early  crops 6 

"    late  crops 6 

elements  necessary 7 

elements  lackingin 7 

Spinach 203 

culture 203 

varieties 204 

Squash 199 

cultivation 200 

harvesting 200 

pollenizing.  flowers 199 

storing 201 

varieties 201-202 

Summer  savory 148 

Strawberry  tomato 209 

culture 209 

Subsoiiing 28 

Sweet  basil 148 

Sweet  marjoram 149 

Sweet  potato 192 

Swiss  chard 112 

Thinning  plants 43 

Tillage,  garden 26 

general 30 

Tomato  204 

cultivation 205 

diseases 208 

improvement 55 

insects 208 

propagation 205 

pruning, 
saving  seed . 


206 
206 


in  severe  locations 206 

training ....206 

transplanting 205 

varieties 208 

Transplanting  44 

with  tomato  cans 47 

Turnip  210 

culture 210 

rutabaga 211 

varieties 211 

Varieties,  development    of 55 

Vitality  of  seeds ...220 

Vegetables,  composition  of 11 

Weeds 26 

cultivation  to  kill 26 

killing  of  .„*. .jM 

seeds  in  manure,^..  QX-^ffA&f 
Weights  of  seeds.. „....*... fc*S^.217 


